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PRODUCTION
1. Production can be defined as the creation of wealth which in turn, adds to society’s welfare .It is a vital link in the process of satisfying wants; As man’s wants are almost unlimited relative to the resources available, it is important in production, then, that the limited resources be used efficiently in order to create the maximum possible welfare.
2. At a general level, all economies, irrespective of their organisation, face the same basis decisions of what, how and for whom to produce, subject to their production possibilities. In a mixed economy, such as the United
Kingdom, some production decisions are left to private enterprise and the market mechanism whilst others are taken by the government: the production by shoes for example, is the result of the decisions of private firms, where as the quantity of hospital services or military tanks produced is the result of political decisions.
3. The firm and its The total level of output in an economy is of objective course, the sum of the outputs of all the individual firms.
It is important at the outset, therefore, to explain what is meant by a firm and to consider some of the main factors which motivates firms to produce goods and services.
4. Definition: A, firm is a decision-making production unit which transforms resources into goods and services which are ultimately bought by customers, the government and other firms.
5. Traditional economic theory has assumed that the typical firm has a single objective-to maximise its profit. No distinction is drawn between the objective of a comer-store proprietor and that of the largest firm. The modern theories of the firm, however, do acknowledge that firms may -have other objectives, such as sales-revenue maximisation or the maximisation of managerial utility.
6. Types of busi ness units. Consider now the legal status of the differant, types of firms in a western economy, such so the United Kingdom.
7. One-man business. In terms of numbers, the one-man business (or sole proprietorship) is the most common type of firm. Typically it is a small-scale operation employing the moat a handful of people. The proprietor himself is normally in charge of the operation of the business, with the effect that he is likely to be highly motivated as he benefits directly from any increase in profits. As the one-man business is small it can provide a personal service to its customers and can respond flexibly to the requirements of the market. Decisions can be taken quickly as the owner does not have to consult with any directors.
8. Disadvantages associated with a one-man business are that the owner cannot specialise in particular functions but must Jack-of-all trades, and the finance available for the expansion of the business is limited to that which the owner himself can raise. An even bigger disadvantage is perhaps that there is no legal distinction between the owner and his business: The owner has, therefore, unlimited liability for any debts incurred by the business, so that in the eventually bankruptcy all his assets (for example his house and car) are liable to seizure.
9 One-man business as are common in retailing, fanning, building and personal services, such as hairdressing.
10 PARTNERSHIP. The logical progression from a one-man business is to a partnership. An ordinary partnership contains from two to twenty partners.
The main advantages over a one-man business are that more finance is likely to be available the influx of partners, and that each partner may specialise to some extent (for example, the marketing , production or personnel functions). The major disadvantage, once again, is that of unlimited liability. As each partner is able to commit the other partners to agreements entered into, all of the others may suffer from the errors of one unreliable or foolhardy partner.
I I Partnerships are oftcn found in the professions-for example, among doctors, dentist, solicitors and architects, Ultimately, the upper limit on the number of partners is likely to restrict the amount of finance available to the partnership and so place a limit on its growth. This, together with disadvantage of unlimited liability, means that many growing business eventually form joint-stock companies.
12. JOINT-STOCK COMPANY, the Joint-stock company with limited liability developed in the second halt of the nineteenth century. It helped to promote the development of large companies by providing a relatively safe vehicle for investment in industry and commerce by a wide cross-section of the community. The liability of the shareholders is limited to the amount they have subscribed to the firm capital and each shareholder knows the extent of his potential loss it the company goes bankrupt. So make information available to potential shareholders, all joint-stock companies are required to file annually with the Registrar of Companies details of their profits, turnover, assets and other relevant financial information, such as the remuneration of the directors.
13. A joint-stock company can be either a private limited company or a public limited company. The shares of a private cannot be offered for sale to the public and thus are not traded on the Stock Exchange .The shares cannot be transferred without the consent of the other shareholders.
Private companies require a minimum of two and a maximum of fifty shareholders (or members), though the upper limit may be exceeded in the case of employees or former employees of the company.
14. The shares of a PUBLIC company can be offered for sale to the public.
A public company requires as minimum of two shareholders, but there is no upper limit. Shares are freely transferable and the company is required to hold an annual general meeting where shareholders are able to question the directors, to change the company’s articles of association, to elect or dismiss the board of directors, to sanction the payment of dividends, to approve the choice auditors and to fix their remuneration. In practice, attendance at annual general meetings is low, and normally the approval of the director’s recommendations is a formality.
15. Although only about 3% of companies are public companies, most large companies are public companies. Indeed, they account for about two-thirds of the capital employed by all companies.
16. CO-OPERATIVES. In the’United Kingdom consumer co-operatives have been successful since the first co-operative was formed at Rochdale in 1844. The movement, which comprises a familiar section of the retail trade, is based on consumer ownership and control, al-though there is a professional management. In 1985 it was reported that there were 8,5 members of retail cooperative societies in the United Kingdom.
17. Producer co-operatives, on, the other hand, have not generally been successful and are not particularly significant in the United Kingdom. The recession of the early 1980s, however, led to an upsurge in the number of producer co-operatives. In many cases they sprang from on attempt by workers to continue production and to maintain jobs after a parent company had decided to close or to sell a plant. This type of co-operative is sometimes referred to as «phoenix co-operative». The Co-operative
Development of producer cooperatives reported the existence of 911 producer co-operatives with around 20000 members in 1984. In some other countries of the EEC, such as France and Spain, producer co-operatives are of more significance than in the United Kingdom.
18. PUBLIC CORPORATION. The public corporation is the form of enterprise that has developed in the United Kingdom for those areas where the government has decided to place production in the hands of the state.
Whilst there are early examples of the formation of public corporation, such as the Port of London Authority (1909) and the British Broadcasting
Corporation (1927),Boat were formed in the period of the post-war Labour government of 1945-51. The
27 government appoints the chairman and the board of directors which is responsible to a minister of the Crown for full filing the statutory requirements for the public corporation aid down by Parliament. The minister is supposed not to concern himself with the day-to-day running the company.
19. Recent government policy has been to return state-owned enterprises to the private sector. Privatisation is the word used when the ownership of a state-owned asset is transferred to private individuals or companies.
20. Examples of privatisation include the sale of British Aerospace (51% sold in 1981 and 49% 1985) and of British Telecom (51% sold in 1984).

Effective Communication
Effective communication is absolutely crucial to good management. You can’t get the best out of people unless you can communicate effectively with them, and they with you.
It seems easy enough. All you have to do is to tell your subordinate what you want him to do, and he gate on with it. A few words of encouragement or criticism nay be needed, but that’s all there is to it. If only it were so simple. The manager has to consider three forms of communication , any of which can cause him problems if he is not careful. They are:
• oral
• written
• non-verbal communication.
Oral communication
Speaking directly to someone in person, by telephone or via a television link is the most common form of human communication. Oral communication is instantaneous, allows great flexibility, and permits sentiment to be combined with an intellectual message without difficulty. Effective oral communication depends on a number of factors which can’t always be taken for granted. These are:
• language
• the style used
• the supporting signals
Language
If a manager was asked to take charge of a group of Chinese workers he would probably expect to have a language problem since everyone knows that apparently identical words can have very different meanings to people living in different countries. If, on the other hand, the group comprised his own countrymen he would assume a shared vocabulary. And terms of ordinary words he would be right. The problem is that management includes many complicated issues which require the use of specialised words. If both parties don’t share the same sense of what these words mean, the scope for misunderstanding is considerable. As a result the manager’s intentions are often not fulfilled. This in turn causes him frustration and the employee confusion, and perhaps a sense of Injustice.
It is only technical or abstruse language which causes the problems; It can just easily happen with what would otherwise seem commonplace words. Any new manager has to take particular care to explain his meaning since his predecessor might well have used words in different nay. Some examples serve to illustrate the point. The interpretations are not meant to be typical-only what can happen.
|What the |What he means |What the |
|manager says | |employee may |
| | |think he means |
|If you have the|I want you to |You have the |
|time |do it right |choice |
| |away | |
|Finish it this |Even if you |You have until |
|evening |have stay late |5.30 |
|I’m |You’ve got to |This is |
|disappointed |improve or |friendly hint |
|with your work |you’re fired | |
|We shall |You’re in the |You’ve got the |
|certainly bear |running |job |
|in | | |

|mind | | |
|We shall have |You’re fired |Take you time |
|to let you go | |to look around |

The list of opportunities for misunderstandly becomes immeasurably longer when meetings are involved. Managers addressing a group of staff mixed by seniority, age and sex have no tiptoe through a potential minefield of confusion. If the issues are ones of personnel management, for example, organisation, pay scales, working practices or whatever, they should take great care the words they use.
Imagine such a meeting. The manager says: «I think we could be more efficient if we combined order checking with computer logging so I’ve decided to transfer Stan and Susan to Michael’s section. I’ve asked Mike to join the executive committee and he’ll take responsibility for liaison with the factory…
By saying, «we could more efficient», does he really mean that it’s a shambles at the moment? If so the staff presently involved may well find it less than gratifying. The manager’s decision to transfer Stan and Susan sounds like a directive which doesn’t involve any sort of consultation.
This may or may not be true, but the opportunity for misunderstanding is there. Mike’s joining the executive sounds like good news. The likely hood is that the staff are either unsure about what its powers are or who is on it anyway. What does liaison with the factory entail? Was someone already doing the gob who has been given the elbow? And soon and so forth.
Things often get worse when question are asked the questioner may use
«insider» language which underlines his relationship with the manager. For example, «Isn’t the same trouble we had with Frank Barnes? No one else has a clue who he was and the Manager has either to ask the questioner to explain what be means or pass on quickly leaving an air of mystery in his wake. Quest oners often use meetings to make implicit political points about the organisation and their own position within it. Some use the opportunity to score points off the manager, if he allows it.
Whether the meeting is face to face or in a group .the manager has to bear three principles in mind:
• he should always be prepared to explain what he means if he has any reason to suspect that he’s being misunderstood ;
• He should always be in control of the communications process when dealing with subordinates and determine the vocabulary to be used ;
• he should strive to make his own use of language as clear and unequivocal as possible. Telephone calls. .These too can hold pitfalls because;
• you don’t know what the other person is doing (or who he is with);
• you can’t see his facial expression;
• it’s very easy to mishear what he has said. There are few things worse than giving instructions on a conference phone. Not only is the voice disembodied, but the person receiving the call will suspect that is being overhead. This discourages open response and mumbled ascent is often the only reaction the caller receives. Obviously, a good deal of man management is conducted on the telephone. Here are some simple rules which is sound for a manager to follow :
• Be friendly-the recipient doesn’t know if you’re pleased or angry with him at his ease straight way;
• Be dear-explain the purpose of your call including your Instructions (if there are any) before asking for comment. This gives the recipient, time to assimilate the whole message end not waste time by disgracing.
• Confirm that the message is understood-this la essential because words become garbled very easily. «Offer them 15 per cent discount» can easily become «offer them 50 per cent discount».
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• Listen carefully to the recipient’s comments-ask for them to be repeated if you haven’t wholly understood them.
• Close cheerfully-however miserable you say feel your instructions are more likely to be implemented it you are cheerful and encouraging…
Written communication
Communication in writing should have the advantage of clarity since the writer has the opportunity to marshal his facts, present the case and make a clear recommendation. Also several people can be communicated with simultaneously, particularly in this age of electronic mailboxes and the fax machine.
In the context of man management, however, there are pitfalls which should be avoided.
Instructions can often be given more clearly in writing then orally.
Remember that the recipient lacks the opportunity to question the manager directly and it is very easy for a feeling of authoritarianism to creep in,
«Give me an analysis of the Sales figures for May, broken down by product and customer type,» may be unequivocal, but it can sound like a military order and the employee receiving the memorandum might be forgiven for assuming a crispness that was unintended. Small organisations use fewer internal memoranda to give instructions than large companies, and everyone probably benefits from the smaller amount of paperwork and the greater informality involved. It instructions are given at a meeting, it is always good practice to confirm the main points in writing afterwards, whatever the size of the organisation. Personnel Issues are also better dealt with orally with subsequent accurate confirmation in writing. Pay rises, promotions, changes in job specifications and the like, should not be communicated initially in writing, however good the news for the employee.
Face-to-face meetings reinforce the relationship with the employee and should always be used.
Disciplinary matters are sometimes dealt with in writings because the manager is reluctant to confront the employee. This practice is always wrong and will breed misunderstanding and resentment. It is even worse when the memorandum is copied to others not directly concerned with the employee’s welfare. If, for example, someone another part of the organisation, complains about an employee’s efficiency or behaviour it is tempting for the manager to kill two birds with one stone. A memo of apology copied to the employee may placate the complainant, but will, almost certainly infuriate the employee. If the manager needs to respond to the complaint in writing he must see the employee first and ideally show him the draft memorandum before sending if off. Notice boards offer a valuable means of keeping a team up to date will relevant personnel developments. The language used should, however, always be chosen with care. For example, a notice which simply says, «Joe Smith is leaving us after for years service,» is doubtless factually correct, but offers endless scope for different interpretations. Did he fall or was he pushed?
Are they glad to see the back of him or is he grieved over? The addition of the world «valuable» before «service» and phrase «and we wish him well in his future career» could resolve all doubt. Copies of memos and letters should only be sent to those who have a relevant interest in the matter in hand. Sending a copy of a memo to recipient’s superior «for information» is usually flagrant politicking and should be discouraged. Ease of copy-making unfortunately encouraging widening the audience for memos well beyond the bounds of common sense. Since recipients often feel honour bound to keep the copies they receive, the real cost to the organisation can be enormous.
Letters written to employee should always conform to the style normally used by his manager. Thus if the employee is «John» to him letters addressing him as «Dear Mr. Smith», «Dear Smith», or «Dear Sir» should always be avoided. It is part of the good manager’s task to make sure that all of the good manager’s task to make sure that all communications with employee reinforce the organisations normal style, whether formal or informal…
Getting the beat out of communication. The key component in all communication is the trust and understanding which is built up through face- to face conversations. Telephone conversations are necessary but less effective, and written communications have many pitfalls for the unwary.
The manager needs to use all three forms which skills which may not come naturally to him. Training in interviewing. Charring meetings, effective speaking and effective writing is readily available.; Even in the smallest organisations an investment in this branch of training is always soundly made.
BODY LANGUAGE
Imagine yourself in a sales meeting with a client. As the client tells you how pleased she is with your products and how she plans to recommend an even larger purchase this year than last ,you sense that something is wrong. Her voice is high-pitched and rapid and her eyes over yours focusing instead on the ballpoint pen she is nervously checking on the desk. About a week after the meeting, she sends you a note, telling you that the entire deal is off. You are disappointed but not surprised for you had understood the non-verbal messages she was sending at the meeting.
According to Albert Mehrabian a leading authority on non-verbal communication, all our emotional messages are communicated without words.
We tell others what we really feel through our facial expressions, eye, leg, hand, and torso movements. We also communicate through the pitch, loudness, and cadence of our voice, the distance we maintain between ourselves and others in conversation, our clothing, and more. Since non- verbal communication can tell you what other people are saying without their ever uttering a word, its importance in business communication is obvious. Here are a few of the ways in which non-verbal messages can be sent and used:
• Even in business meetings, the eyes can be the mirror of the soul. By averting your gaze, you tell those around you that they are not getting
36 their message across or that something negative is going on. If you choose instead to stare directly at a meeting participant, you will probably make the person extremely anxious. If you are in the midst of an argument the harder you stare the menacing you seem.
• Gestures which include the position and movement of the hands, feet, arms, legs, torso, and shoulders, communicate a variety of non-verbal messages. A handshake, for example, often expresses a persons real feelings. A limp handshake is a sign of reserve and lack of enthusiasm while a strong, powerful grip communicate confidence.
• In a disagreement, you may find your boby turned away from the person with whom you are arguing. If, on the other hand, you are on good terms with your business associate, you are more likely to directly face the person. Insecurity is communicated through the position of the arms and legs. If in a meeting you discover that your limbs are wrapped around you, try to analyse why you are nervous.
• As you speak, keep in mind that the pitch, tone, loudness and rate of your voice communicate as much and sometimes more than your words, Rapid speech, for example, may signal excitement or nervousness while hesitant speech may indicate insecurity or doubt.
• The way you dress delivers an unmistakable message to those around you.
If you choose to wear jeans to a sales call on a conservative client, your chances of making the Bale are small.
Don’t fall into the trap of believing that an understanding of non-verbal communication will enable you to read every potertial buyer like a book.
Our speechless messages are extremely compile, varying with the situation and culture we find ourselves in and with particular personalities and habits. However, a working knowledge of the nuances of body language wiil still provide you with an invaluable business tool.
TIME MANAGEMENT
A.
It’s Monday morning and Jim Anderson, a financial manager, is already behind schedule. With three phone calls waiting for him, a budget meeting at 10,a lunch date with a supplier, and an analysis of last quarter’s due at 2. Jim is frantic. He doesn’t know what to do first and worse yet, he knows that he’ll never meet all his deadlines.
Jim is suffering from a common problem plaguing manager-an inability to control and effectively manage time. This problem which affects college students as well, can be minimised by following simple suggestions;
• Establish your goals and set priorities. Make a list of your long-and short-term projects. Look at the list regularly and revise at as needed.
Arrange the list into specific tasks. Then on start at the top of the list and get to work.(Don’t upset it your priorities change by the hour. Just revise your list and get on with the work. Schedule your daily activities on an hour-by hour appointment calendar.
• Learn to delicate work. Then follow this procedure to make sure you get the result you want. Give clear instructions on what you want done, make sure your instructions are understood, set a deadline, regularly check on the projects progress, and allow enough time to correct mistakes.
• Spend your time on those activities that will yield the moat results. The
PARETO PRINCIPLE of time management states that 80%, of your goals can be achieved in 20% of your time if your work on those tasks that are critical to the completion of the overall project and avoid those contribute little to the outcome.
• Do your most important when you are at your best. Work on high-priority items when you are mentally alert and on low-priority items when your energy has ebbed.
• Group your activities. By reading all your mail and making all your phone calls at once, you will make the most efficient use of your time.
• Learn how to held interruptions. Incoming phone calls, unscheduled visitors, and even the mail can play havoc with your schedule. You can control these by having your sectectary handle all but essential calls when you are working on an important task by working in another office (no one will be able to find you), by setting times when they cannot (except for emergencies), and by learning how to deal with long-winded callers.
Interrupting yourself also wastes time. Instead of getting yet another cup of coffee or walking down the hall to chat with a friend, try to finish what you’re doing, even if the job is difficult or unpleasant.
• Avoid the paper shuffle. Try to handle every piece of paper on your desk only once.
• Avoid long lunches when you are in a time crunch.
• Finally, give yourself the time you need to get the Job done. Time management is not the sane thing as time compression. Be realistic about the amount of working time you need to get an important job done and then schedule the rest of your day around it. By using these and other time management techniques, you will begin to fed in control of your schedule.
The inevitable result will be greater productivity.
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DEVELOPMENT OF THE U.S. ECONOMY
I.I. The United States has a fascinating business, history. Business has significantly influenced customs, politics and even family living. The historical development of the U.S. economy continues to effect the way of business operates today. Colonial Society. Colonial society was primary agricultural-built on the products of its farms and plantations. The nations prosperity depended on the success of its crops, and most people lived in rural areas.
The cities-quite small in comparison to those of Europe- were the marketplaces and residences craft workers, traders, bankers and government officials.
2. But the real economics and political power of the nation was centered in rural areas. The population was tied to the land socially as well as well as economically. The colonies looked to England for manufactured products and capital with to finance infant industries.
3. Even after the Revolutionary war (1776-1783), the United States maintained close economic relations with England. Indeed, British investors provided much to the money needed to finance the developing business system. This financial influence remained well into 19* century.
II. 4. The Industrial Revolution. The industrial revolution occurred in
England around 1750. The traditional manufactured system of independed skilled workers individually pursuing their specialities was replaced by a factory system that mass-produced items by bringing together large numbers of semiskilled workers.
5. The factory system profited from savings that were created by large- scale production. For example, row materials could often be purchased cheaper in large lots. Another savings came from the specialisation of labour; each worker concentrated on one specific task. Production efficiency improved substantially and the factory system revolutionised business.
6. Influenced by the events occurring in England, the United States soon began its march toward industrialisation. Agriculture became mechanised and factories sprang up everywhere. But most business historians agree that real progress did not occur until railroads provided a fast, economical method of transporting the goods produced by business.
7. The American Industrial Revolution was highlighted by the rapid construction of railroad systems during the 1840s and 1550s. Not only did the railroad provided the necessary transportation system, the also created the need for greater quantities of lumber, still, and real estate.
III. 8. The age of the entrepreneur. During the 19th century business made sizeable advises in the U.S. Eli Whitney introduced the concept of interchangeable parts, an idea that would later facilitate mass production.
Peddlers, the sales people of the day, operated throughout the country.
Financiers became less depended upon England, and the banking system better established after some early problems. Investors created a virtually endless array of commercially usable products.
9. People were encouraged to take risks and to become entrepreneurs.
Cornelius Vanderbilt, John D. Rockfeller, J.P. Morgan, and Andrew Carnegie
-all became wealthy because of their willingness to take business risks during this period. Admittedly, some people were hurt by the speculation that characterised industry during the 1800s but, on balance, the entrepreneurial spirit of the age did much to advance the business system and raise the standard of living.
IV. 10. PRODUCTION ERA. The early part of the 20th century — the production. era — was a period when business managers concentrated almost solely on the firm’s production tasks. Industry was under considerable pressure to produce more and more to satisfy growing consumer demand and to correct product shortages.
Work assignments became increasingly specialised. Assembly lines, such as the one introduced by Henry Ford, became common. Owners turned over management responsibilities to a new class of managers, who specialised in operating established businesses rather than in starting new ones.
Marketing tended to be viewed strictly as selling. Business did not yet accept disiplines like consumer research. In other words, marketers were those individuals responsible for distribution after the production function had been performed. Business was internally oriented rather that consumer oriented.
V.ll. THE MARKETING CONCEPT. The post-World War II era was influenced by an important new concept in management. The marketing concept, which became the prevalent business philosophy, advocated that all activities and functions of the organisation be directed toward the identification and satisfaction of consumer wants. A consumer orientation became the principal goal of companies.
12. Business organisations throughout United States formed marketing research departments to analyze what the consumer would buy before the company produced the item. This concept stood in marked contrast to the earlier philosophy of producing a product then trying to sell it to the consumer. Advertising reached over larger numbers of consumers and increased the efficiency of firm’s promotional affords. Today, firms must have a strong consumer orientation if they are to remain competitive in the marketplace.
VI. 13. THE CURRENT BUSINESS ERA. Challenge after Challenge has confronted business in recent years. Well-known firms like Whickers and Continental
Airlines have filed for bankruptcy. Concern over high numbers of industrial accidents and illnesses has resulted in the passage of federal legislation regarding occupational safety and health. Financial scandals have touched off public demand. Millions of people have been shocked by the ecological reports of environmentalists. Higher fuel costs have made energy-saving programs priority items at managerial meetings.
14. These challenges have produced several noticeable trembles in the business world. Business has become more socially responsible; the social impact of a business decisions making. Business has become more conscious of its operating costs, particularly energy costs. More minorities and women porsue business carriers today. Management continues to struggle with the problem of predicting and then reacting to new government regulations and requirements. Business has found new markets abroad — Some in Communist nations — but has encountered increasing competition from foreign producers at home writers may some day describe the current business era as one of the most challenging for the private enterprise system.

Автономная некоммерческая организация

Многоуровневый образовательный комплекс

ВОРОНЕЖСКИЙ ЭКОНОМИКО-ПРАВОВОЙ ИНСТИТУТ

(АНО МОК ВЭПИ)

КАФЕДРА СОЦИАЛЬНО-ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКИХ ДИСЦИПЛИН

РЕФЕРАТ

ПО ДИСЦИПЛИНЕ: «РУССКИЙ ЯЗЫК И КУЛЬТУРА РЕЧИ»

НА ТЕМУ: «ДЕЛОВАЯ БЕСЕДА»

СТАРЫЙ ОСКОЛ

2009

План

Введение

Противоречивая сущность мотивации общения

Основные принципы делового этикета

Влияние индивидуальных психологических качеств личности на общение

Диалоговое общение

Правила общения по телефону

Этика и психология деловых бесед и переговоров

Заповеди делового человека

Литература

Введение

Деловое общение — необходимая часть человеческой жизни, важнейший вид отношений с другими людьми. Вечным и одним из главных регуляторов этих отношений выступают этические нормы, в которых выражены наши представления о добре и зле, справедливости и несправедливости, правильности или неправильности поступков людей. И общаясь в деловом сотрудничестве со своим подчиненными, начальником или коллегами, каждый так или иначе, сознательно или стихийно опирается на эти представления. Но в зависимости от того, как человек понимает моральные нормы, какое содержание в них вкладывает, в какой степени он их вообще учитывает в общении, он может как облегчить себе деловое общение, сделать его более эффективным, помочь в решении поставленных задач и достижении целей, так и затруднить это общение или даже сделать его невозможным.

Этика (от греч. ethos — обычай, нрав) — учение о морали, нравственности. Термин «этика» впервые употребил Аристотель для обозначения практической философии, которая должна дать ответ на вопрос, что мы должны делать, чтобы совершать правильные, нравственные поступки.

Мораль (от лат. moralis — нравственный) — это система этических ценностей, которые признаются человеком. Мораль — важнейший способ нормативной регуляции общественных отношений, общения и поведения людей в самых различных сферах общественной жизни — семье, быту, политике, науке, труде и т. д.

Важнейшими категориями этики являются: «добро», «зло», «справедливость», «благо», «ответственность», «долг», «совесть» и т.д.

1. Противоречивая сущность мотивации общения

Нормы морали получают свое идейное выражение в общих представлениях, заповедях, принципах о том, как должно себя вести. Мораль всегда предполагает наличие определенного нравственного идеала, образца для подражания, содержание и смысл которого меняются в историческом времени и социальном пространстве, т.е. в различные исторические эпохи и у разных народов. Однако в морали должное далеко не всегда совпадает с сущим, с реально существующей нравственной реальностью, фактическими нормами поведения людей. Более того, на всем протяжении развития морального сознания внутренним стержнем и структурой его изменения является «противоречиво-напряженное соотношение понятий сущего и должного».

В этом противоречии между должным и сущим заключена и противоречивая сущность мотивации общения (в том числе и делового общения и поведения человека). С одной стороны, человек стремится вести себя нравственно, должным образом, а с другой — ему необходимо удовлетворить свои потребности, реализация которых очень часто связана с нарушением нравственных норм. Этот внутренний конфликт между возвышенным идеалом и практическим расчетом, нравственным долгом и непосредственным желанием существует всегда и во всех сферах жизни. Но особенно напряженно он проявляется в этике делового общения, потому что именно в этом виде общения основной предмет, по поводу которого оно образуется, является внешним для индивидов.

Общение — процесс взаимодействия общественных субъектов: социальных групп, общностей или личностей, в котором происходит обмен информацией, опытом, способностями и результатами деятельности. Общение выступает как способ бытия общества и человека. Именно в процессе общения происходят социализация личности и ее самореализация. По мнению Аристотеля, способность вступать в общение отличает человека от «недоразвитых в нравственном смысле существ» и от «сверхчеловека». Поэтому «тот, кто не способен вступать в общение или, считая себя существом самодовлеющим, не чувствует потребности ни в чем, уже не составляет элемента государства, становясь либо животным, либо божеством».

Специфика делового общения обусловлена тем, что оно возникает на основе и по поводу определенного вида деятельности, связанной с производством какого-либо продукта или делового эффекта. При этом стороны делового общения выступают в формальных (официальных) статусах, которые определяют необходимые нормы и стандарты (в том числе и этические) поведения людей. Как и всякий вид общения, деловое общение имеет исторический характер, оно проявляется на разных уровнях социальной системы и в различных формах. Его отличительная черта — оно не имеет самодовлеющего значения, не является самоцелью, а служит средством для достижения каких-либо других целей. В условиях рыночных отношений – это, прежде всего, получение максимальной прибыли.

С учетом всего сказанного этику делового общения можно определить как совокупность нравственных норм, правил и представлений, регулирующих поведение и отношения людей в процессе их производственной деятельности. Она представляет собой частный случай этики вообще и содержит в себе ее основные характеристики.

Деловое общение — это сложный многоплановый процесс развития контактов между людьми в служебной сфере. Его участники выступают в официальных статусах и ориентированы на достижение цели, конкретных задач. Спецификой является регламент — подчинение установленным ограничениям, определенных национальными и культурными традициями, профессиональными этическими принципами.

Известны «писаные» и «неписаные» нормы поведения в той или иной ситуации официального контакта. Принятый порядок и форма обхождения на службе называется деловым этикетом. Его основная функция — формирование правил, способствующих взаимопониманию людей. Второй по значению является функция удобства, т.е. целесообразность и практичность. Современный отечественный служебный этикет имеет интернациональные признаки, потому что его основы фактически были заложены в 1720 году «Генеральным регламентом» Петра I, в котором были заимствованы зарубежные идеи.

Деловой этикет включает в себя правила:

• нормы, действующие в сфере общения между равными по статусу членами коллектива (горизонтальные);

• наставления, определяющие характер контакта руководителя и подчиненного (вертикальные).

Общим требованием считается приветливое и предупредительное отношение ко всем коллегам по работе, партнерам, независимо от личных симпатий и антипатий, Регламентированность делового взаимодействия выражается также во внимании к речи. Обязательно соблюдение речевого этикета — разработанных обществом норм языкового поведения, типовых готовых «формул», позволяющих организовать этикетные ситуации приветствия, просьбы, благодарности и т.д. (например, «здравствуйте», «будьте добры», «разрешите принести извинения», «счастлив познакомиться с вами»). Эти устойчивые конструкции выбираются с учетом социальных, возрастных, психологических характеристик.

Общение как взаимодействие предполагает, что люди устанавливают контакт друг с другом, обмениваются определенной информацией для того, чтобы строить совместную деятельность, сотрудничество.

Этапы общения:

• установка контакта (знакомство, понимание другого человека);

• ориентировка в ситуации общения, осмысление происходящего, выдержка паузы;

• обсуждение интересующей проблемы;

• решение проблемы;

• завершение контакта (выход из него).

Служебные контакты строятся на партнерских началах, исходят из взаимных запросов и потребностей, из интересов дела. Такое сотрудничество повышает трудовую и творческую активность, является важным фактором технологического процесса производства, бизнеса.

Виды делового общения по способу обмена информацией — устное и письменное. Устные виды, в свою очередь, подразделяются на монологические и диалогические.

К монологическим видам речи относят приветственную речь; торговую (реклама); информационную; доклад (на заседании, собрании).

Диалогические виды речи:

— деловой разговор (кратковременный контакт, преимущественно на одну тему);

— деловая беседа (обмен сведениями, сопровождающийся принятием решений);

— переговоры (обсуждение с целью заключения соглашения по какому-либо вопросу);

— интервью (разговор с журналистом, предназначенный для печати, радио, телевидения);

— дискуссия; совещание (собрание);

— пресс-конференция;

— контактный деловой разговор (непосредственный, «живой» диалог);

— телефонный разговор.

В прямом контакте и непосредственной беседе наибольшее значение имеют устная и невербальная коммуникации. Беседа или передача сообщений по телефону являются самыми распространенными формами коммуникаций, их отличает непосредственный контакт и большое разнообразие способов общения, что позволяет без труда сочетать деловую (формальную) и личную (неформальную) части всякого сообщения.

Письменные виды делового общения — это служебные документы: деловое письмо, протокол, отчет, справка, докладная и. объяснительная записка, акт, заявление, договор, устав, положение, инструкция, решение, распоряжение, указание, приказ, доверенность и др.

По содержанию общение может быть разделено на:

материальное — обмен предметами и продуктами деятельности;

когнитивное — обмен знаниями;

мотивационное — обмен побуждениями, целями, интересами, мотивами, потребностями;

деятелъностное — обмен действиями, операциями, умениями, навыками.

По средствам общения:

непосредственное, которое осуществляется с помощью рук, головы, туловища, голосовых связок и т.д.;

опосредованное- связанное с использованием специальных средств и орудий (письма, телефакс и др.);

прямое — предполагает личные контакты и непосредственное восприятие друг другом общающихся людей в самом акте общения (телефонный разговор, прямой эфир и др.);

косвенное — осуществляется через посредников (другие люди).

Структура общения

К структуре общения можно подойти по-разному, как и к определению его функций. В отечественной психологии структура общения характеризуется путем выделения в нем трех взаимосвязанных сторон.

Стороны общения: коммуникативная, интерактивная и перцептивная.

Коммуникативная сторона общения, или коммуникация в узком смысле слова, состоит в обмене информацией между общающимися индивидами.

Интерактивная сторона заключается в организации взаимодействия между общающимися индивидами, то есть в обмене не только знаниями, идеями, но и действиями.

Перцептивная сторона общения означает процесс восприятия друг друга партнерами по общению и установления на этой основе взаимодействия.

Функции общения:

1) информационно-коммуникативная,

2) регуляционно-коммуникативная,

3) аффективно коммуникативная.

Задача заключается в том, чтобы тщательно проанализировать, в том числе на экспериментальном уровне, содержание каждой из этих сторон или функций. Конечно, в реальной действительности каждая из этих сторон не существует изолированно от двух других, и выделение их возможно лишь для анализа, в частности для построения системы экспериментальных исследований. Все обозначенные здесь стороны общения выявляются в малых группах, т. е. в условиях непосредственного контакта между людьми.

Отдельно рассматриваются вопросы о средствах и механизмах взаимодействия людей.

2. Основные принципы делового этикета

1. Пунктуальность (делайте все вовремя). Только поведение человека, делающего все вовремя, является нормативным. Опоздания мешают работе и являются признаком того, что на человека нельзя положиться. Этот принцип распространяется на все служебные задания. Специалисты, изучающие организацию и распределение рабочего времени, рекомендуют прибавлять лишних 25% к тому сроку, который, на ваш взгляд, требуется для выполнения порученной работы.

2. Конфиденциальность (не болтайте лишнего). Секреты учреждения или конкретной сделки необходимо хранить бережно, как тайны личного характера. Нельзя пересказывать услышанное от сослуживца или руководителя об их деятельности или личной жизни.

3. Доброжелательность и приветливость, но это не означает, что дружить с каждым, с кем приходится общаться по долгу службы.

4. Внимание к окружающим (думайте о других, а не только о себе). Оно должно распространяться на сослуживцев, начальников и подчиненных. Уважайте мнение других, прислушивайтесь к критике и советам коллег, начальства и подчиненных. Покажите, что цените соображения и опыт других людей. Уверенность в себе не должна подменять скромность.

5. Имидж — внешний облик. Главное — вписаться в окружение по службе, а внутри этого окружения — в контингент работников вашего уровня. Необходимо одеваться со вкусом, выбирать цветовую гамму к лицу, большое значение имеют тщательно подобранные аксессуары.

6. Грамотность (говорите и пишите хорошим языком). Внутренние документы или письма, направляемые за пределы учреждения, должны быть изложены хорошим языком, а все имена собственные переданы без ошибок. Нельзя употреблять бранные слова, даже если вы приводите слова другого человека. Окружающими они будут восприняты как часть вашего собственного лексикона.

Деловое (официальное, служебное) общение в зависимости от обстоятельств может быть прямым и косвенным. В первом случае оно проходит при непосредственном контакте субъектов общения, а во втором — с помощью переписки или технических средств. Как в прямом, так и косвенном общении используются различные методы влияния (воздействия) на людей: убеждение, внушение, принуждение. Рассмотрим их.

Убеждение — воздействие посредством доказательств, логического упорядочения фактов и выводов. Убеждение подразумевает уверенность в правоте своей позиции, в истинности своих знаний, этической оправданности своих поступков. Убеждение — ненасильственный, а следовательно, и нравственно предпочтительный метод влияния на партнеров по общению.

Внушение, как правило, не требует доказательств и логического анализа фактов и явлений для воздействия на людей. Основывается на вере человека, складывающейся под влиянием авторитета, общественного положения, обаяния, интеллектуального и волевого превосходства одного из субъектов общения. Большую роль играет сила примера, вызывающая сознательное копирование поведения, а также бессознательное подражание.

Принуждение — наиболее насильственный метод воздействия на людей. Он предполагает стремление заставить человека вести себя вопреки его желанию и убеждениям, используя угрозу наказания или иного воздействия, способного привести к нежелательным для индивида последствиям. Этически оправданным принуждение может быть лишь в исключительных Случаях.

На выбор метода воздействия на людей оказывают влияние разнообразные факторы, в том числе характер, содержание и ситуация общения (обычная, экстремальная), общественное или служебное положение (властные полномочия) и личностные качества субъектов общения.

3. Влияние индивидуальных психологических качеств личности на общение

общение мотивация деловой этикет

Личность обладает индивидуальными чертами и качествами — интеллектуальными, нравственными, эмоциональными, волевыми, которые формируются под воздействием общества, а также в процессе семейной, трудовой, общественной, культурной жизнедеятельности человека. В общении большое значение приобретают знание и учет наиболее типичных черт поведения людей, свойств их характера и моральных качеств.

Деловое общение строится на основе таких моральных качеств личности и категорий этики, как честность, правдивость, скромность, великодушие, долг, совесть, достоинство, честь, что придает деловым отношениям нравственный характер. На характер общения непосредственное влияние оказывает темперамент его участников.

Выделяют четыре типа темперамента: сангвинический, флегматический, холерический, меланхолический.

Сангвиник жизнерадостен, энергичен, инициативен, восприимчив к новому, быстро сходится с людьми. Легко контролирует свои эмоции и переключается с одного вида деятельности на другой.

Флегматик уравновешен, медлителен, тяжело приспосабливается к новым видам деятельности и новой обстановке. Долго обдумывает новое дело, но, начав его выполнение, обычно доводит до конца. Настроение, как правило, ровное, спокойное.

Холерик активен, предприимчив, отличается большой работоспособностью, упорством в преодолении трудностей, однако подвержен резким сменам настроения, эмоциональным срывам, депрессии. В общении бывает резок, несдержан в выражениях.

Меланхолик впечатлителен, повышенно эмоционален, при этом больше подвержен отрицательным эмоциям. В сложных ситуациях проявляет растерянность, теряет самообладание, в благоприятной обстановке может хорошо справляться со своими обязанностями.

4. Диалоговое общение

Общение — это улица с двусторонним движением.

Чтобы общаться, мы должны выражать наши идеи, наши мысли и наши чувства тем, с кем мы вступаем в общение, но мы должны позволить нашим собеседникам также выразить свои идеи, мысли и чувства.

Регламентаторами беседы являются вопросы. Для уточнения проблемы целесообразно задавать вопросы открытого типа: что? где? когда? как? зачем? — на которые невозможно ответить «да» или «нет», требуется развернутый ответ с изложением необходимых деталей. Если нужно конкретизировать беседу и сузить тему обсуждения, то задают вопросы закрытого типа (должен ли? был ли?), которые требуют односложного ответа.

Деловая беседа, как правило, состоит из следующих этапов: ознакомление с решаемым вопросом и его изложение; уточнение влияющих на выбор решения факторов; выбор решения; принятие решения и доведение его до собеседника. Залог успеха деловой беседы — компетентность, тактичность и доброжелательность ее участников. Важным элементом как деловой, так и светской беседы является умение слушать собеседника.

Правила ведения деловой беседы:

1. Говорить так, чтобы каждый участник беседы мог легко вступить в разговор и высказать свое мнение.

2. Недопустима нетерпимость к чужой точке зрения. Высказывая свое мнение, нельзя отстаивать его, горячась и повышая голос: спокойствие и твердость в интонациях действуют более убедительно.

3. Изящество в разговоре достигается через ясность, точность и сжатость высказываемых доводов и соображений. Во время беседы необходимо сохранять самообладание, хорошее расположение духа и благожелательность.

4. Серьезная полемика, даже при уверенности в своей правоте, негативно сказывается на взаимно полезных контактах и деловых отношениях. Необходимо помнить, что за спором идет ссора, за ссорой — вражда, за враждой — проигрыш обеих противостоящих сторон.

5. Нельзя перебивать говорящего. Лишь в крайних случаях, соблюдая вежливость, можно корректно сделать замечание.

6. Если в комнату вошел новый посетитель, необходимо прервать беседу и продолжить разговор после того, как пришедшего вкратце ознакомят с тем, что было сказано до его прихода.

7. Недопустимо в беседах злословить или поддерживать злословие в адрес отсутствующих.

8. Нельзя вступать в обсуждение вопросов, о которых нет достаточно ясного представления.

9. Говоря в беседе о третьих лицах, нужно называть их по имени-отчеству, а не по фамилии.

10. В беседе недопустимо называть друг друга по фамилии.

11. Не допускайте бестактных высказываний.

12. Неучтиво просить собеседника повторять сказанное под предлогом, что вы не расслышали деталей.

13. Если другой человек заговорит одновременно с вами, предоставьте право сначала высказаться ему.

14. Образованный и воспитанный человек — скромен: он не хвастает знаниями и знакомствами с людьми, занимающими высокое положение.

5. Правила общения по телефону

Современную деловую жизнь невозможно представить без телефона. Благодаря нему многократно повышается оперативность решения множества вопросов и проблем, отпадает необходимость посылать письма, телеграммы или совершать поездки в другое учреждение, город для выяснения обстоятельств какого-либо дела. По телефону можно сделать очень многое: провести переговоры, отдать распоряжения, изложить просьбу и т. д. Очень часто первым шагом на пути к заключению делового договора является телефонный разговор.

Человечество пользуется телефоном уже более века. Казалось бы, времени вполне достаточно для того, чтобы научиться разумно пользоваться этим техническим средством… Но умение говорить по телефону по наследству не передается. Искусством общения при помощи этого аппарата овладевает не каждый. Хорошо, если есть толковые наставники или удачные субъекты для подражания, у которых можно научиться правильному разговору по телефону. Соответствующие курсы, различные методические пособия по этой теме широко распространены в различных странах мира.

У телефонного разговора по сравнению с письмом есть одно важное преимущество: он обеспечивает непрерывный двухсторонний обмен информацией независимо от расстояния. Но к деловому телефонному разговору надо тоже тщательно готовиться. Плохая подготовка, неумение выделить в нем главное, лаконично, емко и грамотно излагать свои мысли приводят к значительным потерям рабочего времени (до 20- 30%). Так утверждает американский менеджер А. Маккензи. Среди 15 главных причин потерь рабочего времени бизнесменом, менеджером он поставил на первое место телефонные разговоры. Психологи отмечают, что продолжительность телефонных разговоров зависит от их эмоциональной окраски. Излишняя эмоциональность создает предпосылки для речевой нечеткости, неделовитости фраз, что увеличивает время телефонного разговора.

Известно также, что при телефонном разговоре наблюдается такое явление, как пресыщение общением. Оно может явиться источником напряженности между сторонами. Поэтому во время разговора надо соблюдать меру. Иначе может потеряться смысл общения и возникнуть конфликт. Признаки пресыщения общением: возникновение и усиление беспричинного недовольства партнером, раздражительность, обидчивость и т. п. Следует вовремя выйти из контакта с партнером, чтобы сохранить деловые отношения. Кроме того, ведя длительные телефонные разговоры, вы можете получить репутацию зануды или пустомели. Подобная репутация подорвет интерес к вам и к вашим деловым предложениям. Чтобы восстановить доброе имя фирмы и свое реноме, придется затратить значительно больше усилий, чем при установлении первого делового контакта.

Искусство ведения телефонных разговоров состоит в том, чтобы кратко сообщить все, что следует, и получить ответ. В японской фирме не будут долго держать сотрудника, который не решит деловой вопрос по телефону за три минуты.

Основа успешного проведения делового телефонного разговора — компетентность, тактичность, доброжелательность, владение приемами ведения беседы, стремление оперативно и эффективно решить проблему или оказать помощь в ее решении. Важно, чтобы служебный, деловой телефонный разговор велся в спокойном вежливом тоне и вызывал положительные эмоции. Еще английский философ XVII в. Ф. Бэкон отмечал, что вести разговор в доброжелательном тоне более важно, чем употреблять хорошие слова и располагать их в правильном порядке. Во время телефонного разговора необходимо создать атмосферу взаимного доверия.

Эффективность делового телефонного общения зависит от эмоционального состояния человека, от его настроения. По мнению психологов, положительные эмоции тонизируют деятельность головного мозга, способствуют четкому рациональному мышлению. Отрицательные эмоции приводят к нарушению логических связей в словах, аргументации, создают условия для неверной оценки партнера, его предложений. Существенное значение имеет также умелое проявление экспрессии. Она свидетельствует об убежденности человека в том, что он говорит, в его заинтересованности в решении рассматриваемых проблем. Во время разговора надо уметь заинтересовать собеседника своим делом. Здесь вам поможет правильное использование методов внушения и убеждения. Как это сделать, при помощи каких средств?

Голос, тон, тембр, интонации внимательному слушателю говорят очень о многом. По данным психологов, тон, интонация могут нести до 40% информации. Нужно только обращать внимание на подобные «мелочи» во время телефонного разговора. Самому же стараться говорить ровно, сдерживать свои эмоции, не пытаться прерывать речь собеседника. Если ваш собеседник проявляет склонность к спорам, высказывает в резкой форме несправедливые упреки, в его тоне звучит самомнение, то наберитесь терпения и не отвечайте ему тем же. Если есть возможность, переведите разговор на спокойный тон, частично признайте его правоту, постарайтесь понять мотивы его поведения. Постарайтесь кратко и ясно изложить свои аргументы. Ваши доводы должны быть правильными по существу и грамотно изложены по форме. В разговоре старайтесь не допускать выражения типа: «идет», «добро», «лады», «пока» и т. п. В телефонном разговоре также лучше не употреблять специфические, профессиональные выражения, которые могут быть непонятны собеседнику.

Надо помнить, что телефон усугубляет недостатки речи, быстрое или замедленное произношение слов затрудняет восприятие. Особенно следите за произношением чисел, имен собственных, согласных букв. Если в разговоре встречаются названия городов, поселков, имена собственные, фамилии и т. п., которые плохо воспринимаются на слух, их нужно произносить по слогам или даже передавать по буквам.

Этикет делового телефонного разговора имеет в своем запасе целый ряд реплик для корректировки общения. Например:

Как Вы меня слышите?

Не могли бы Вы повторить… ?

Извините, очень плохо слышно.

Простите, я не расслышал, что Вы сказали, и т.п.

Прежде чем позвонить кому-либо, вспомните: длительное воздействие телефонных звонков отрицательно сказывается на нервной системе (поэтому сами старайтесь снимать с аппарата трубку, как только услышите звонок), ненужные телефонные разговоры нарушают рабочий ритм, мешают решению сложных вопросов, требующих глубокого анализа, обсуждения в спокойных условиях, т. е. мешают работать тем, кто находится рядом.

Звонок по домашнему телефону деловому партнеру, сослуживцу для служебного разговора может быть оправдан лишь серьезной причиной, кому бы вы ни звонили — начальнику или подчиненному. Воспитанный человек не станет звонить после 22 часов, если для этого нет острой необходимости или не получено предварительное согласие на этот звонок.

Как показывает анализ, в телефонном разговоре 30-40% занимают повторения слов, фраз, ненужные паузы и лишние слова. Следовательно, к телефонному разговору надо тщательно готовиться: заранее подобрать все материалы, документы, иметь под рукой необходимые номера телефонов, адреса организации или нужных лиц, календарь, авторучку, бумагу и т. п.

До того как вы решили набрать номер, следует точно определить цель разговора и свою тактику его поведения. Составьте план беседы, запишите вопросы, которые хотите решить, или сведения (данные), которые хотите получить, продумайте порядок постановки вопросов. Четко сформулируйте их, чтобы ваш собеседник не мог многозначно толковать их. Первой же фразой старайтесь заинтересовать собеседника. Держите в памяти даты и номера документов, официальных материалов, имеющих отношение к разговору, постарайтесь спрогнозировать контраргументы собеседника и’ свои ответы ему. Если обговариваете несколько вопросов, то последовательно заканчивайте обсуждение одного вопроса и переходите к следующему. С помощью стандартных фраз старайтесь отделять один вопрос от другого. Например:

Итак, по этому вопросу мы договорились?!

Могу я считать, что по этому вопросу мы достигли соглашения?

Как я вас понял (в этом вопросе), мы можем рассчитывать на вашу поддержку?

Таким образом, две машины вы поставите нам не позже первого квартала?

Разговор по каждой теме должен заканчиваться вопросом, требующим однозначного ответа.

При подготовке к деловой беседе по телефону постарайтесь ответить себе на следующие вопросы:

• какую главную цель вы ставите перед собой в предстоящем телефонном разговоре;

• можете ли вы вообще обойтись без этого разговора;

• готов ли к обсуждению предполагаемой темы собеседник;

• уверены ли вы в благополучном исходе разговора;

• какие вопросы вы должны задать;

• какие вопросы может задать вам собеседник;

• какой исход переговоров устроит (или не устроит) вас и вашего собеседника;

• какие приемы воздействия на собеседника вы можете использовать во время разговора;

• как вы будете вести себя, если ваш собеседник: решительно возразит, перейдет на повышенный тон; не отреагирует на ваши доводы; проявит недоверие к вашим словам, информации.

По окончании делового телефонного разговора потратьте 3-5 минут на анализ содержания и стиля разговора. Проанализируйте свои впечатления. Найдите уязвимые места в разговоре. Постарайтесь понять причину своих ошибок.

6. Этика и психология деловых бесед и переговоров

В политической, предпринимательской, коммерческой и иных сферах деятельности важную роль играют деловые беседы и переговоры. Изучением этики и психологии переговорных процессов занимаются не только отдельные исследователи, но и специальные центры. Методика ведения переговоров включена в программы подготовки специалистов различных профилей.

Деловые беседы и переговоры осуществляются в вербальной форме, что требует от участников общения не только грамотности, но и следования этике речевого общения. Важную роль играет, какими жестами, мимикой мы сопровождаем речь (невербальное общение). Особую важность приобретает знание невербальных аспектов общения при переговорах с иностранными партнерами с иной культурой и религией.

Деловая беседа включает обмен мнениями и информацией и не предполагает заключения договоров или выработки решений, обязательных для исполнения. Она может иметь самостоятельный характер, предварять переговоры или быть их составной частью.

Переговоры имеют более официальный, конкретный характер и, как правило, предусматривают подписание документов, определяющих взаимные обязательства сторон (договоров, контрактов и т.д.).

Подготовка к переговорам включает: определение предмета (проблем), поиск партнеров для их решения, уточнение своих интересов и интересов партнеров, разработка стратегии и тактики (плана и программы) переговоров, подбор специалистов в состав делегации, решение организационных вопросов и оформление необходимых материалов — документов, чертежей, диаграмм, образцов предлагаемых изделий и др.

Схема переговоров: начало беседы, обмен информацией, аргументация и контраргументация, выработка и принятие решений, завершение.

Первым этапом переговорного процесса может быть ознакомительная встреча (беседа), в процессе которой уточняется предмет переговоров, решаются организационные вопросы, или встреча экспертов, предваряющая переговоры с участием руководителей и членов делегаций. Успех переговоров в целом во многом зависит от результатов таких предварительных контактов.

Наладить отношения между партнерами помогают:

1. Рациональность. Вести себя сдержанно, так как неконтролируемые эмоции отрицательно сказываются на переговорном процессе и принятии разумных решений.

2. Понимание. Невнимание к точке зрения партнера затрудняет выработку взаимоприемлемых решений.

3. Общение. Если партнеры не проявляют заинтересованности, все же постарайтесь провести с ними консультации, что позволит сохранить и улучшить отношения.

4. Достоверность. Ложная информация ослабляет силу аргументации и неблагоприятно влияет на репутацию.

5. Избегайте менторского тона, не поучайте партнера. Основной метод — убеждение.

6. Принятие. Постарайтесь понять другую сторону, будьте открыты к новой информации от партнера.

Рекомендации опытных специалистов

1. Время. Удачными днями для переговоров являются вторник, среда, четверг. Самое благоприятное время дня — через полчаса-час после обеда, когда мысли о еде не отвлекают от решения деловых вопросов.

2. Среда. Благоприятная среда для переговоров может быть создана, в зависимости от обстоятельств, в вашем офисе, представительстве партнера или на нейтральной территории (в конференц-зале, в приспособленном для переговоров номере гостиницы, зале ресторана и т.д.).

3. Вопросы. Успех определяется умением задавать вопросы и получать исчерпывающие ответы на них. Вопросы служат для управления ходом переговоров и выяснения точки зрения оппонента. Правильная постановка вопросов способствует принятию нужного вам решения.

Виды вопросов

1) Информационные вопросы предназначены для сбора сведений, которые необходимы для составления представления о чем-либо.

2) Контрольные вопросы важно использовать во время любого разговора, чтобы выяснить, понимает ли вас партнер. Примеры контрольных вопросов: «Что вы об этом думаете?», «Считаете ли вы так же, как и я?».

3) Направляющие вопросы необходимы тогда, когда вы не хотите позволить собеседнику навязать вам нежелательное направление беседы. С помощью таких вопросов вы можете взять в свои руки управление ходом переговоров и направить их в необходимое вам русло.

4) Провокационные вопросы позволяют установить, чего в действительности хочет ваш партнер и верно ли возникает состояние положительного ожидания. Например: «Если я предложу вам способ, с помощью которого можно быстро решить проблему …, ничем при этом не рискуя, заинтересует вас это?».

10) Заключающие вопросы направлены на скорейшее положительное завершение переговоров. При этом лучше всего сначала задать один-два подтверждающих вопроса, сопроводив их непременно дружеской улыбкой: «Смог ли я убедить вас в выгоде этого предложения?», «Убедились ли вы, насколько просто все решается?» А затем без дополнительного перехода можно задать вопрос, заключающий переговоры: «Какое время вас больше устраивает — май или июнь?»

Соблюдение этических норм и принципов. Успешное ведение деловых бесед и переговоров во многом зависит от соблюдения партнерами таких этических норм и принципов, как точность, честность, корректность и такт, умение выслушать (внимание к чужому мнению), конкретность.

Точность — одна из важнейших этических норм, присущих деловому человеку. Срок договоренности необходимо соблюдать с точностью до минуты. Любое опоздание свидетельствует о вашей ненадежности в делах.

Честность. Включает не только верность принятым обязательствам, но и открытость в общении с партнером, прямые деловые ответы на его вопросы.

Корректность и такт. Не исключают настойчивости и энергичности в ведении переговоров при соблюдении корректности. Следует избегать факторов, мешающих ходу беседы: раздражения, взаимных выпадов, некорректных высказываний и т.д.

Умение выслушать. Внимательно и сосредоточенно слушайте. Не перебивайте говорящего.

Конкретность. Беседа должна быть конкретной, а не отвлеченной и включать факты, цифровые данные и необходимые подробности. Понятия и категории должны быть согласованы и понятны партнёрам. Речь должна подкрепляться схемами и документами.

Негативный исход деловой беседы не является основанием для резкости или холодности при завершении переговорного процесса. Прощание должно быть таким, чтобы позволило сохранить контакт и деловые связи.

7. Заповеди делового человека

— Никогда не считайте ваши методы самыми лучшими. Все можно сделать лучше, чем было до сих пор.

— Не начинайте работу, если цель ее и задачи четко не определены.

— Помните слова Сенеки: «Кто не знает, в какую гавань плывет, для того нет попутного ветра».

— Работайте по четкому и конкретному плану (общий план практически не выполняется).

— Помните, что из трех зол: ошибка, перестраховка, бездеятельность, наименьшее — первое. Не бойтесь ошибаться: поняв ошибку, ее можно исправить. А перестраховка и бездеятельность лишат вас авторитета.

— Контролируйте свои эмоции, вырабатывайте привычку сдерживаться, не терять самообладания. Еще Гораций заметил: «Гнев есть кратковременное безумие».

— Задания и распоряжения отдавайте в спокойном тоне, сформулировав их четко, полно и конструктивно.

— Умейте отыскивать рациональное зерно даже в недоброжелательной критике. Леонардо да Винчи считал, что «противник, ищущий ваши ошибки, полезнее, чем друг, желающий их скрыть».

— Говорите с людьми не по должности, а по душе. Проникновенность и сердечность вашего разговора оказывают на них сильное воздействие.

— Умейте подбирать и воспитывать кадры. Выбор и обучение умелого подчиненного — всегда более благоразумная задача, чем выполнение всех дел самим.

— Нельзя давать обещаний, если нет уверенности, что они действительно будут выполнены. Данное слово должно быть гарантией обещания.

— Не теряйте чувство юмора. Беззлобная, доброжелательная шутка создает обстановку доверия, делает труд более легким, привлекательным и производительным. В ряде случаев можно скорее добиться успеха шуткой, чем — строгостью или официальностью.

— Стремитесь как можно меньше говорить «я», а больше «мы», особенно в коллективе.

Литература

1. Под ред. проф. В.Н. Лавриненко. Психология и этика делового общения: Учебник для вузов — 3-е изд., перераб. и доп. — М.: ЮНИТИ-ДАНА, 2001.

2. Поваляева М.А. Психология и этика делового общения / Серия «Высшее образование». — Ростов на Дону: Феникс, 2004.

3. При написании реферата также использовались интернет-сайты.

Student’s Scientific Society «Integral»

ESSAY: YEARS OF UN PEACEKEEPING EFFORTS

Section: English Language

Author: Sokolova Olga, School #5, Form 11A

Supervisor: Gorina Elena Vasilievna

English Teacher, 1st category,

School #5 with extensive English learning

N. Tagil

1998

CONTENTS

1. Introduction 2
2. Origin of the UNO 3
3. The way UN works 4
1. Main bodies 4
2. Security Council activity 6
4. UN activity 8
1. UN peacekeeping missions 8
2. UN and human rights 12
3. UN humanitarian assistance to developing countries

14
5. Disarmament 15
1. UN activity in the sphere of disarmament 15
2. The problem of Iraqi military arsenal

16

5.2.1 Iraq/Kuwait conflict 17

5.2.2. UNIKOM Establishment 18

5.2.3. Blitzkrieg 20
6. Conclusion 23
7. References 24
8. Appendixes 25

I. INTRODUCTION

Most people are familiar with the work of the United Nations in peacekeeping or in delivering humanitarian assistance to a far-off country.
But the many ways in which the UN has a direct impact on all our lives, everywhere in the world, is not always so well-known.

Now that world mass media reflect the news about the UNO in detail, it is very challenging to know different points of view, and I took an interest in this problem. I heard about UN activity but didn’t reach the main point, like the majority of my coevals, who are familiar with the events that concern the UNO but don’t fully understand the essence of them.
UN activity in preserving peace has attracted me most of all. The arms race, disputes between nations, wars, military conflicts have turned into the real danger to the mankind. I think that people must stop killing each other and end this violence. I’ve chosen the UN peacekeeping missions and especially in Iraq as a specific example of UN’s work. It is very urgent nowadays.

II. ORIGIN OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Day in, day out, the UN and its family of organizations work together and individually to protect human rights; promote the protection of the environment; help the advancement of women and the rights of children; fight epidemics, famine, poverty. Throughout the world, the UN and its agencies assist refugees and help improve telecommunication; deliver food aid and protect consumers; combat disease and help expand food production; make loans to developing countries and help stabilize financial markets. UN agencies define the standards for safe and efficient transport by air and sea, work to ensure respect for intellectual property rights and coordinate allocation of radio frequencies. The UN’s work has a long-term impact on the quality of our lives.

The name «United Nations» was devised by United States President
Franklin D. Roosevelt and was first used in the «Declaration by United
Nations» of January 1, 1942, during the Second World War, when representatives of 26 nations pledged their Governments to continue fighting together against the Axis Powers.

The United Nations Charter was drawn up by the representatives of 50 countries at the United Nations Conference on International Organization, which met at San Francisco from April 25 to June 26, 1945. Those delegates deliberated on the basis of proposals worked out by the representatives of
China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States at
Dumbarton Oaks in August-October 1944. The Charter was signed on June 26,
1945 by the representatives of the 50 countries. Poland, which was not represented at the Conference, signed it later and became one of the original 51 Member States.

The United Nations officially came into existence on October 24, 1945, when the Charter had been ratified by China, France, the Soviet Union, the
United Kingdom, the United States and by a majority of other signatories.
United Nations Day is celebrated on October 24 each year.

III. THE WAY UN WORKS

The United Nations is an organization of sovereign nations. It provides the machinery to help find solutions to international problems or disputes, and to deal with pressing concerns that face people everywhere.

It does not legislate like a national parliament. But in the meeting rooms and corridors of the UN, representatives of almost all countries of the world -large and small, rich and poor, with varying political views and social systems -have a voice and vote in shaping the policies of the international community.

The UN has six main bodies listed below. All are based at UN
Headquarters in New York, except the International Court of Justice, which is located at the Hague, Netherlands.

In addition, 14 specialized agencies, working in areas as diverse as health, finance, agriculture, civil aviation and telecommunications, are linked together through the Economic and Social Council. The UN and its specialized agencies constitute the UN system. Main bodies of the UN are: the General Assembly, Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice and the
Secretariat.

3.1 Main Bodies

The General Assembly

The General Assembly, sometimes called the nearest thing to a world parliament, is the main deliberative body. All 185 Member States are represented in it, and each has one vote. Decisions on ordinary matters are taken by simple majority. Important questions require a two-thirds majority.

The Assembly holds its regular sessions from mid-September to mid-
December. Special or emergency sessions are held when necessary. When the
Assembly is not in session, its work goes on in special committees and bodies.

The Assembly has the right to discuss and make recommendations on all matters within the scope of the UN Charter — the Organization’s founding document. It has no power to compel action by any Government, but its recommendations carry the weight of world opinion. The Assembly also sets policies and determines programs for the UN Secretariat, directs activities for development, and approves the UN budget, including peacekeeping operations. Occupying a central position in the UN, the Assembly receives reports from other organs, admits new Members and appoints the UN Secretary
— General.

The Economic and Social Council

Working under the authority of the General Assembly, the Economic and
Social Council coordinates the economic and social work of the UN and related specialized agencies and institutions. The Council has 54 members, and meets for a one-month session each year, alternating between New York and Geneva. The session includes a special meeting at the level of ministers to discuss major economic and social issues.

The Council oversees UN activities and policies promoting economic growth in developing countries, administering development projects, promoting the observance of human rights, and fostering international cooperation in areas such as housing, family planning, environmental protection and crime prevention.

The Trusteeship Council

The Trusteeship Council was established to ensure that Governments responsible for administering trust territories take adequate steps to prepare them for self-government or independence. The task of the
Trusteeship System was completed in 1994, when the Security Council terminated the Trusteeship Agreement for the last of the original 11 UN
Trusteeships — the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (Palau), administered by the United States. All Trust Territories have attained self- government or independence, either as separate States or by joining neighbouring independent countries. The Trusteeship Council will now meet as and where circumstances so demand.

The International Court of Justice

The International Court of Justice (also known as the World Court) is the main judicial organ of the UN, settling legal disputes between member states and giving advisory opinions to the UN and its agencies. It consists of 15 judges, elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council.
Only countries may be parties in cases brought before the Court. If a country does not wish to take part in a proceeding, it does not have to do so (unless required by special treaty provisions), but if it accepts, it is obligated to comply with the Court’s decision.

The Secretariat

The Secretariat works for the other five organs of the UN and administers their programs. With a staff of some 8,900 under the regular budget, working at headquarters and all over the world, it carries out the day-to-day work of the UN. At its head is the Secretary — General.

He plays a central role in peacemaking, both personally and through special envoys. The Secretary — General may bring to the attention of the
Security Council any matter which appears to threaten international peace and security. To help resolve disputes, the Secretary — General may use
«good offices» to carry out mediation, or exercise «quiet diplomacy» behind the scenes. The Secretary — General also conducts «preventive diplomacy» to help resolve disputes before they escalate.

In many instances, the Secretary — General has been instrumental in securing a peace agreement or in averting a threat to peace. The current secretary general is Kofi Annan, who succeeded Boutros Boutros Ghali in
1997 (see appendix C).

Staff members are drawn from some 170 countries.

3.2 Security Council Activity

The Security Council has primary responsibility, under the Charter, for the maintenance of international peace and security. It is so organized as to be able to function continuously, and a representative of each of its members must be present at all times at United Nations Headquarters.

When a complaint concerning a threat to peace is brought before it, the Council’s first action is usually to recommend to the parties to try to reach agreement by peaceful means. In some cases, the Council itself undertakes investigation and mediation. It may appoint special representatives or request the Secretary — General to do so or to use his good offices. It may set forth principles for a peaceful settlement.

When a dispute leads to fighting, the Council’s first concern is to bring it to an end as soon as possible. It also sends United Nations peace- keeping forces to help reduce tensions in troubled areas, keep opposing forces apart and create conditions of calm in which peaceful settlements may be sought. The Council may decide on enforcement measures, economic sanctions (such as trade embargoes) or collective military action.

A member state against which preventive or enforcement action has been taken by the Security Council may be suspended from the exercise of the rights and privileges of membership by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council. A member state which has persistently violated the principles of the Charter may be expelled from the United Nations by the Assembly on the Council’s recommendation.

The presidency of the Council rotates monthly, according to the
English alphabetical listing of its member states (see appendix D).

The Council has 15 members — five permanent members and 10 elected by the General Assembly for a two-year term.

The following countries ended their two-year membership term on
December 31, 1997:
Chile
Egypt
Guinea-Bissau
Poland
Republic of Korea

Each Council member has one vote. Decisions on procedural matters are made by an affirmative vote of at least nine of the 15 members. Decisions on substantive matters require nine votes, including the concurring votes of all five permanent members. This is the rule of «great power unanimity», often referred to as the «veto» power.

Under the Charter, all Members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council. While other organs of the United Nations make recommendations to Governments, the Council alone has the power to take decisions which member states are obligated under the
Charter to carry out.

Under the Charter, the functions and powers of the Security Council are: to maintain international peace and security in accordance with the principles and purposes of the United Nations; to investigate any dispute or situation which might lead to international friction; to recommend methods of adjusting such disputes or the terms of settlement;

to formulate plans for the establishment of a threat to peace or act of aggression and to recommend what action should be taken; to call on Members to apply economic sanctions and other measures not involving the use of force to prevent or stop aggression; to take military action against an aggressor; to recommend the admission of new members and the terms on which states may become parties to the Statute of the International Court of Justice; to exercise the trusteeship functions of the United Nations in «strategic areas»: to recommend to the General Assembly the appointment of the Secretary —
General and, together with the Assembly, to elect the Judges of the
International Court.

IV. UN ACTIVITY

4.1 UN Peace-Keeping Missions

United Nations peacekeepers, wearing distinctive UN blue helmets or berets, are dispatched by the Security Council to help implement peace agreements, monitor cease-fires, patrol demilitarized zones, create buffer zones between opposing forces, and put fighting on hold while negotiators seek peaceful solutions to disputes. But ultimately, the success of peacekeeping depends on the consent and cooperation of the opposing parties.

The UN does not have an army. For each peacekeeping mission, member states voluntarily provide troops and equipment, for which they are compensated from a special peacekeeping budget. Police officers, election observers, human rights monitors and other civilians sometimes work alongside military personnel in peacekeeping operations. Lightly armed for self-defense — and often unarmed — peacekeepers’ strongest “weapon” is their impartiality. They rely on persuasion and minimal use of force to defuse tensions and prevent fighting. It is dangerous business; approximately 1,500 UN peacekeepers have died in the performance of their duties since 1945.

Rank-and-file soldiers on peacekeeping missions do not swear allegiance to the United Nations. Governments that volunteer personnel carefully negotiate the terms of their participation — including command and control arrangements. They retain ultimate authority over their own military forces serving under the UN flag, including disciplinary and personnel matters, and may withdraw their troops if they wish. Peacekeeping soldiers wear their own national uniforms. To identify themselves as peace- keepers, they also wear blue berets or helmets and the UN insignia.

The cost of UN peacekeeping personnel and equipment peaked at about $3 billion in 1995, reflecting the expense of operations in the former
Yugoslavia. Peacekeeping costs fell in 1996 and 1997, to $1.4 billion and some $1.3 billion, respectively — and estimated budgetary requirements for
1998 are expected to drop to under $1 billion.

All Member States are obligated to pay their share of peacekeeping costs under a formula that they themselves have agreed upon. But as of 15
March 1998, member states owed the UN $1.7 billion in current and back peacekeeping dues. The United States is by far the largest debtor, owing
$958 million.

Since 1945, there have been 48 United Nations peacekeeping operations.
There are currently 16 under way. Thirty-five peacekeeping operations were created by the Security Council in the years between 1988 — when UN peacekeeping operations were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize — and June 1998:

…in Africa

In Angola, UN mediation led to the 1994 peace accord and to the installation of a government of national unity in 1997, formally uniting a country devastated by 20 years of civil war. A UN operation is in place to help put the peace accord into effect. The UN also continues to provide humanitarian assistance to the Angolan people.

In Somalia, after the outbreak of civil war in 1991, the UN brought relief to millions facing starvation and helped to stop the large-scale killings. From 1992 to 1995, two UN operations sought to restore order, protect delivery of humanitarian relief, promote reconciliation and help reconstruction. Under difficult conditions, various UN agencies continue to provide humanitarian assistance.

The UN helped secure peace in Mozambique. The UN Operation in
Mozambique (ONUMOZ) was deployed in the country in 1992 to help put into effect the peace agreement between the Government and the Mozambican
National Resistance. ONUMOZ monitored the cease-fire, verified the demobilization of combatants, coordinated humanitarian aid and observed in
1994 the country’s first multi-party elections, which led to the peaceful installation of a new Government. Today, the World Bank, the UN Development
Program and other parts of the UN family are working with the Government to help forge the economic and social progress needed to underpin the democratic process.

…in Asia

The UN helped end the 12-year conflict in Cambodia and organized the
1993 elections that led to the installation of a new Government. Earlier, the Secretary — General had used his «good offices» in the search for peace, helping to mediate the 1991 peace accord. The UN Transitional
Authority in Cambodia was then deployed to supervise the cease-fire between the parties, disarm combatants, repatriate refugees, and organize and conduct the elections.

In Afghanistan, mediation by a UN envoy led to the 1988 agreements between Afghanistan, Pakistan, the Soviet Union and the United States aimed at ending the conflict. To help put the agreements into effect, the UN deployed an observer mission, which also verified Soviet troop withdrawal.
The Secretary — General and his envoys have continued to work for a peaceful settlement of the continuing civil war. UN agencies provide assistance to the some 2.3 million Afghan refugees.

…in the Americas

The UN has helped resolve protracted conflicts in Central America. In
Guatemala, UN-assisted negotiations resulted in the 1996 peace accord, ending a 35-year conflict during which over 100,000 people were killed. The
UN began supervising talks between the Government and the Guatemalan
National Revolutionary Unity in 1991. In 1994, two agreements opened the way to a settlement of the conflict, and led to the deployment of the UN
Mission for the Verification of Human Rights in Guatemala. The Mission has remained in the country to help put into effect the peace accord.

In 1990, the UN observed the first democratic elections in Haiti.
After a military coup in 1991 forced the President into exile, the UN mediated an agreement for the return to democracy. As Haiti’s military leaders did not comply with the agreement, the Security Council authorized in 1994 the formation of a multinational force to facilitate the leaders’ departure. After the landing of a United States — led multinational force, the exiled President returned to Haiti in 1994. A UN peacekeeping force, which took over from the multinational force in 1995, contributes to stability in the young democracy.

In El Salvador, the Secretary — General assisted in peace talks between the Government and the Farabundo Martн National Liberation Front
(FMLN). His mediation led to the 1992 peace agreement between the
Government and FMLN, which ended the 12-year conflict. A UN Observer
Mission monitored all agreements concluded between the parties and observed the 1994 elections.

A UN mission deployed between 1989 and 1992 contributed to ending the fighting in Nicaragua. It helped demobilize some 22,000 members of the
Nicaraguan resistance (also known as «contras»), who in 1990 turned in their weapons to the UN. Another mission observed the 1990 elections — the first UN-observed elections in an independent country.

Throughout Central America, UN specialized agencies and programs are working hand in hand to ensure that refugees are safely repatriated and provided with the tools to start over. They also provide training for civil servants, police, human rights monitors and legal professionals to promote good governance and the rule of law.

…in Europe

Following the 1995 Dayton-Paris peace agreements, four UN missions were deployed to help secure the peace in the former Yugoslavia. The largest of them, the UN Transitional Administration in Eastern Slovenia, was established to govern this area and help reintegrate it into Croatia.

From 1991, the UN worked strenuously to resolve the conflict, providing at the same time relief assistance to some 4 million people. To help restore peace, the UN imposed an arms embargo in 1991, while the
Secretary — General and his envoy assisted in seeking solutions to the conflict. From 1992 to 1995, UN peacekeepers sought to bring peace and security to Croatia, helped protect civilians in Bosnia and Herzegovina and helped ensure that the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia was not drawn into the war.

UN agencies continue to provide humanitarian assistance to over 2 million people still suffering the effects of the conflict.

…in the Middle East

The Middle East has been a major concern of the UN. In 1948, the first
UN military observer group monitored the truce called for by the Security
Council during the first Arab-Israeli war. The first peacekeeping force was also set up in the Middle East, during the 1956 Suez crisis; it oversaw troop withdrawal and contributed to peace and stability.

Two peacekeeping forces are deployed in the region. The UN
Disengagement Observer Force, established in 1974, maintains an area of separation on the Golan Heights between Israeli and Syrian troops. In southern Lebanon, a UN Force established in 1978 contributes to stability and provides protection to the population.

Hand in hand with peacekeeping, the UN has sought a lasting settlement in the Middle East. Security Council resolutions 242 (1967) and 338 (1973) set forth the principles for a just and lasting peace, and remain the basis for an overall settlement. Following the 1993 landmark agreement between
Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization, a UN Coordinator has been overseeing all development assistance provided by the UN to the Palestinian people in Gaza and the West Bank. The UN Relief and Works Agency for
Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) provides essential health, education, relief and social services to over 3 million registered
Palestinian refugees.

Military peacekeepers are the most visible, but not the only, UN peace presence in the field. UN envoys and other civilian personnel are engaged in diplomacy, human rights monitoring and other peace efforts in scores of regions threatened or afflicted by fighting often in the most difficult situations.

4.2 UN and Human Rights

The Charter goals of justice and equal rights, for individuals and for peoples, have been pursued by the UN from its early days.

As one of its first tasks, the UN formulated the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, a historic proclamation of the basic rights and freedoms to which all men and women are entitled — the right to life, liberty and nationality, to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, to work, to be educated, to take part in government, and many other rights. The General
Assembly adopted the Declaration on 10 December 1948, a date commemorated every year as Human Rights Day.

Two International Covenants adopted in 1966 — one on economic, social and cultural rights and the other on civil and political rights — have expanded and made legally binding the rights set forth in the Declaration.
These three documents constitute the International Bill of Human Rights, a standard and a goal for all countries and peoples.

The UN has also put in place mechanisms to further human rights. The
UN High Commissioner for Human Rights coordinates all the human rights activities of the UN, seeks to prevent violations, investigates abuses and works with Governments in resolving violations.

The UN Commission on Human Rights is the only intergovernmental body that conducts public meetings on human rights abuses brought to its attention and reviews the human rights performance of all Member States.
Special reporters of the Commission monitor the human rights problems in specific countries.

UN missions are monitoring the human rights situation in Haiti,
Guatemala and Eastern Slovenia (Croatia).

The Security Council has established international tribunals to try persons accused of war crimes during the conflicts in the former Yugoslavia and in Rwanda. The tribunals have indicted several individuals and brought a number of defendants to trial.

Self-determination and independence.

A fundamental right — self-determination, or the right of peoples to govern themselves — was a goal when the Charter was signed. Today, it has become a reality in most of the lands formerly under colonial rule.

In 1960, the General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, in which it proclaimed the need to bring colonialism to a speedy end. Since then, some 60 former colonial Territories, inhabited by more than 80 million people, have attained independence and joined the UN as sovereign Members.
Today, 17 Non-Self-Governing Territories remain, inhabited by some 2 million people. The Assembly has set the goal of ending colonialism by the year 2000, declaring the 1990s the International Decade for the Eradication of Colonialism.

Namibia’s independence

The UN helped bring about the independence of Namibia, achieved in
1990. The General Assembly in 1966 revoked South Africa’s Mandate to administer the territory — a decision South Africa rejected. Complex negotiations led in 1989 to the implementation of the 1978 UN plan for the independence of Namibia. The UN Transition Assistance Group was deployed throughout Namibia to monitor the withdrawal of South African troops, the registration of voters, and the 1989 elections, which led to the installation of the first independent Government and to Namibia’s independence.

Election assistance

To further democratization, the UN has also observed elections, at
Government request, in sovereign member states: in Nicaragua and Haiti
(1990), Angola (1992), El Salvador, South Africa and Mozambique (1994), as well as the referendum on the independence of Eritrea (1993). In other instances — such as Malawi, Lesotho and Armenia — the UN has coordinated international observers provided by member states.

Observers typically follow the preparation and holding of the election; on election day, they are deployed to polling stations throughout the country, observe voting and vote counting, and issue a final statement on the conduct of the election.

Since 1992, the UN has provided technical assistance in the preparation and holding of elections to over 70 countries. Such assistance, which may involve coordination and support, advisory services and short- term observation, is instrumental in building the capacity of countries to run their elections in the future.

Apartheid.

Apartheid applies to all aspects of life. Socially, blacks had to live apart from the other races. Politically, they could not vote. Economically, they could work only in the lowest paying occupations.

The UN helped to bring an end in 1994 to South Africa’s apartheid
(racial segregation) system. For more than three decades, the UN carried out a sustained campaign against apartheid. The campaign, which ranged from an arms embargo to a convention against segregated sports events, helped to bring about a democratically elected Government in 1994, through elections in which, for the first time, all South Africans could vote. The UN
Observer Mission in South Africa assisted in the transition and observed the election. With the installation of a non-racial and democratic government, the apartheid system came to an end.

International law.

The UN has made major contributions towards expanding the rule of law among nations through its development and codification of international law. The International Court of Justice has assisted countries in solving important legal disputes and has issued advisory opinions on UN activities.

The UN has initiated hundreds of conventions and treaties covering virtually all areas of international law — from international trade to environmental protection. Action has been particularly strong in human rights law.

For instance, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women is the main international legal instrument to further women’s equality. The Convention against Illicit Traffic in
Narcotic Drugs is the key international treaty against drug trafficking.
The Convention on the Law of the Sea seeks to ensure equitable access by all countries to the riches of the oceans, protect them from pollution and facilitate freedom of navigation and research.

4.3 UN Humanitarian Assistance to Developing Countries

When countries are stricken by war, famine or natural disaster, the UN helps provide humanitarian aid. Part of this aid is in the form of direct assistance from the UN operational agencies and programs: The Office of the
UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the UN (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO), the
World Food Program (WFP), the UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the UN
Development Program (UNDP).

The Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is responsible for the protection and assistance of over 26 million people around the world who have fled war or persecution, seeking at the same time durable solutions to their plight. In early 1997, UNHCR’s major operations were in the Great Lakes region of Africa, with over 1.4 million people in need; the former Yugoslavia (over 2 million people); and western Asia (some
2.3 million Afghan refugees).

All UN emergency relief is coordinated by the UN Emergency Relief
Coordinator, who heads the UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs.

In 1996, the UN raised $1.3 billion for emergency assistance to over
22 million people around the world.

5. DISARMAMENT

5.1 UN Activity in the Sphere of Disarmament

Halting the arms race and reducing and eventually eliminating all weapons of war are major concerns of the UN. The UN has been a permanent forum for disarmament negotiations, making recommendations and initiating studies. Negotiations have been held bilaterally and through international bodies such as the Conference on Disarmament, which meets regularly in
Geneva.

The General Assembly adopted in 1996 the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, a landmark agreement that aims at banning all nuclear-weapon tests.

In a major step in advancing non-proliferation, States parties in 1995 extended indefinitely the 1970 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear
Weapons (NPT). Under this Treaty, nuclear-weapon States agree not to provide nuclear weapons to other countries and to pursue nuclear disarmament; non-nuclear weapon States agree not to acquire nuclear weapons. Concluded under UN auspices, the Treaty has been ratified by over
170 countries.

Other treaties have been concluded to prohibit the development, production and stockpiling of chemical weapons (1992) and bacteriological weapons (1972); reduce conventional armed forces in Europe (1990); ban nuclear weapons from the seabed and ocean floor (1971) and outer space
(1967); and ban or restrict other classes of weapons

The United Nations proposed another disarmament agreement in 1972. The
100 nations that signed this Seabed Agreement agreed never to place nuclear weapons on the ocean floor. Both the Soviet Union and the United States were among the signers.

In 1996, States parties strengthened a Protocol restricting the use, production and transfer of landmines – “silent killers” that slay or maim some 20,000 people each year. According to the UN, there are some 110 million landmines in over 70 countries, and 2 million new landmines are laid every year.

Mine Clearance

The subject of mine clearance is one of critical importance that has recently taken center stage in the forum of pressing world issues. As regards the work of the United Nations, the process of demining is fundamental to the UN’s ability to deliver programs effectively in war-torn countries or post-war environments, whether such undertakings be related to peacekeeping, humanitarian assistance or rehabilitation.

Over the past seven years, the need for mine clearance has grown significantly in a number of regions around the world. As a result, the UN is increasingly called upon to operate mine clearance programs in areas that are completely infested with landmines and unexploded ordnance (UXO).
Consequently, prior to any large deployment of personnel or equipment to a given area, the UN must prepare for a safe working environment by initiating preliminary mine clearance activities in localized areas. Once this has been completed, a broader operation can be accommodated to conduct mine clearance activities on a more comprehensive scale.

The clearance of areas for use by a supported nation is undertaken only when specially mandated by the Security Council. It is standard procedure for the UN to not only performs mine clearance but also to assist a supported nation in the development of its own sustainable clearance capacity. The UN program may include such topics as mine awareness, mine marking, mine survey, mine clearance as well as unexploded ordinance disposal. Additionally, the program’s overall efforts may go beyond mine- specific issues to cover related areas, such as management and logistics, training and support.

The UN may vary its approach to each situation as there are currently no standardized templates or universal procedures established for mine clearance activities world-wide.

Mine Clearance in the United Nations is presently divided into two areas of responsibility :

. which plans and advises on mine clearing activities carried out under United Nations auspices as well as maintains contact with

Governments and organizations that participate in or contribute to these activities.

. which serves as the focal point for coordinating all humanitarian mine clearance and related activities.

These two units work together to ensure a seamless approach to United
Nations Mine Clearance Activities.

5.2 The Problem of Iraqi Military Arsenal

One of the last UN operations on eliminating all weapons was connected with the investigation of Iraqi arsenal, as there were some data proving that Iraq possesses very dangerous weapons that might be lethal to the mankind.

The nation of Iraq is relatively young; the country achieved independence in 1932. Since then, Iraq has been almost perpetually at war with its neighbors. Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait in 1990, leading to the
1991 Persian Gulf War. Iraq has been under international sanctions since the invasion and the United Nations refused to lift them until it is convinced that Iraq has eliminated its weapons of mass destruction. The
United States and Britain threatened air strikes in 1998 over Iraq’s refusal to allow UN weapons inspectors’ free access to all sites. The
United States and its allies patrol a no-fly zone over northern Iraq to protect Kurds from attack and in the south to protect Shiite Muslims.

Almost all countries are concerned with Iraq’s unwillingness to allow
UN inspectors investigate its military arsenal. For example Swedish diplomat Rolf Ekeus — who led the UN investigations from the cease-fire through the summer of 1997 and headed to Baghdad for talks, said that they had declared everything. Iraq stated that no documents existed in Iraq because they had been destroyed. That was exploded totally, because Iraq itself admitted in writing even that it had been lying. Cheating systematically from when we started in 1991 up until this very date in
August of 1995.

5.2.1 Iraq/Kuwait conflict

To understand the essence of the conflict it is necessary to descry the reasons of the conflict. Shortly after the Iran-Iraq War, Iraq’s military dictator, Saddam Hussein, accused Kuwait of taking an unfair share of oil revenues. In August 1990 he made the claim that Kuwait was a part of
Iraq and ordered his armies to invade and occupy Kuwait.

The Iraqi invasion alarmed President Bush and other world leaders for three reasons. First, it was an act of aggression by a strong nation against a weaker nation. (Iraq in 1990 had the fourth largest military force in the world.) Second, the taking of Kuwait opened the way to an
Iraqi conquest of the world’s largest oil-producing nation, Saudi Arabia.
Third, the combination of Iraq’s military power and aggressive actions would allow it to dominate the other countries of the Middle East.

To prevent further aggression, President Bush ordered 200,000 troops to Saudi Arabia, followed later by an additional 300,000. “We have drawn a line in the sand,” said the president, as he announced a defensive effort called Operation Desert Shield. US troops were joined by other forces from a UN-supported coalition of 28 nations including Great Britain, France,
Italy, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, and Egypt.

Members of the UN Security Council, including both the United States and the Soviet Union, voted for a series of resolution concerning Iraq’s aggression. One UN resolution demanded Iraq’s unconditional withdrawal from
Kuwait. Other resolutions placed an international embargo on trade with
Iraq and authorized UN members to use force if Iraqi troops did not leave
Kuwait by January 15, 1991. As the January deadline neared, members of
Congress debated whether or not to authorize the president to send US troops into combat in the Persian Gulf. Both houses voted in favor of the war resolution. [ ]

The Gulf War had far greater significance to the emerging post-cold war world than simply reversing Iraqi aggression and restoring Kuwait. In international terms, we tried to establish a model for the use of force.
First and foremost was the principle that aggression cannot pay. If we dealt properly with Iraq, that should go a long way toward dissuading future would-be aggressors. We also believed that the US should not go it alone, that a multilateral approach was better. [ ]

5.2.2. UNIKOM Establishment

On 3 April 1991, the Security Council adopted resolution 687 (1991), which set detailed conditions for a cease-fire and established the machinery for ensuring implementation of those conditions. By resolution
687 (1991) the Council established a demilitarized zone along the border between Iraq and Kuwait, to be monitored by a UN observer unit.

On 9 April 1991, the Security Council adopted resolution 689 (1991) which approved the Secretary General’s plan for the establishment of the
United Nations Iraq-Kuwait Observation Mission (UNIKOM). The UNIKOM advance party arrived in the area on April 1991. UNIKOM was established to monitor the Khawr ‘Abd Allah and the DMZ set up along the border between Iraq and
Kuwait, and to observe any hostile or potentially hostile action mounted from the territory of one State to the other.

The mandate was expanded in February 1993 by Security Council resolution 806 (1993), with the addition of an infantry battalion, to: take physical action to prevent, or redress, small scale violations of the DMZ and of the boundary between Iraq and Kuwait; and problems arising from the presence of Iraqi installations and citizens and their assets in the DMZ on the Kuwaiti side of the border. Since the demarcation of the Iraq-Kuwait boundary in May 1993 by the United Nations Iraq-Kuwait Boundary Demarcation
Commission, and the relocation of Iraqi citizens found to be on the Kuwaiti side of the border back into Iraq, the situation along the DMZ has been calm.

From the Security Council on down, nearly every UN diplomat, along with officials from many other countries, will not stop repeating their mantra: They want full and unfettered access to all sites in Iraq where the inspection team suspects weapons of mass destruction are hidden. And that is precisely what Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein has refused to do, for the seven years that the inspection regime has been in force.

President Clinton has managed to put the United States on both sides of the diplomatic fence, repeatedly insisting America is making every effort to avoid violence, but is ready to use U.S. aircraft and cruise missiles to pound Iraq into submission if necessary.

The United States has assembled an armada in the Persian Gulf consisting of 30,000 soldiers, sailors, pilots and Marines, 20 warships, and more than 400 attack and support aircraft. Although it doesn’t compare to the huge multinational force that went to war with Iraq in 1991, neither does the coalition.

So far, only Britain and Canada have joined the United States in sending forces to the area. Most of the nations that supported the attack in 1991 seem to feel that a military solution is too unsubtle a tool for such a delicate diplomatic goal, and that the Iraqi people, already suffering under UN sanctions, do not need to endure another baptism by fire.

The demonstrations — never spontaneous and always state-organized — quickly became tedious affairs, with the same posters, the same chants, the same stunts.

What’s more, the UN Security Council more than doubled the amount of oil Iraq can sell over six months in order to buy food, medicine and other goods for its people suffering from devastating sanctions imposed when Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990. At that time to put pressure on Iraqi forces to withdraw, the United States and the UN voted to place an embargo on the purchase of Iraqi oil. The resulting drop in oil supplies quickly led to higher prices at gas stations all across the country.

The vote was unanimous in the 15-member body. The new program—which raises the permitted oil revenue from $2 billion to $5.256 billion—does not go into effect until Annan evaluates and approves an Iraqi plan for how the goods should be distributed.

Iraq has expressed irritation over the plan and delayed the previous versions of it, citing what it called infringements on its sovereignty. UN officials insist on the right to strictly monitor the aid given under the plan to make sure it reaches those who need it.

U.S. opinion polls show support for attacks on Iraq remains strong, hovering in the 60 percent range, but a disastrous “town hall” meeting in
Ohio on Wednesday suggested it was equally fragile.

State Department spokesman James P. Rubin said families were not being ordered to leave Israel and Kuwait, but that they were being allowed to do so over concerns they may consider it prudent.

Iraqis have in the past threatened to attack both Israel and Kuwait in the event that Iraq is attacked. The United States this weekend is beefing up forces in Kuwait, and Israel has been urgently distributing gas masks.

“The probability of Iraq resorting to the use of chemical or biological weapons is remote, but it cannot be excluded,” Rubin said.

U.S. officials acknowledge that any attack on Iraq could hit hard at civilians there.

As a result of UNICOM work the following data concerning Iraqi military arsenal were received.
|Missiles |UN verified as |UN believes may exist. |
| |destroyed | |
|Missiles |817 |2 |
|Warheads |30 |45 |
|Launchers and launch |75 |0 |
|pads | | |
|Chemical Weapons |
|Munitions (filled and |38,537 |31,658 |
|empty) | | |
|Precursor chemicals |3,000 tons |4,000 tons |
|Equipment for |516 |459 |
|production | | |
|Biological Weapons |
|Although the Al Hakam factory, capable of producing anthrax and botulinum|
|toxin, was raised, these and other agents have not been accounted for. |

5.2.3. Blitzkrieg1

The events that took place December 16, 1998 shocked the mankind. US and British forces launched a “strong, sustained” series of airstrikes against Iraq early Thursday, targeting military and security installations throughout the country. Pentagon[1] sources said about 200 cruise missiles were fired from ships and manned fighter bombers in the first wave of what will be an “open-ended’ attack, designed to degrade Iraq’s ability to produce nuclear, chemical and biological weapons. Clinton accused Hussein of failing to live up to his commitment to allow unrestricted access to UN weapons inspectors. This is how chief CNN International Correspondent
Christiane Amanpour reported from a rooftop in downtown Baghdad: “An orange plume of smoke wafted over the city after one of the loudest bursts.”
Allied missiles struck more than 50 separate targets” during the first wave of bombing that began overnight on Wednesday.

The military strikes – which came at night – followed a roughly 14- month period during which Baghdad officials periodically said they would no longer cooperate with the weapons inspectors. During that time, Baghdad also repeatedly demanded that crippling international sanctions, imposed after Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait prior to the Gulf War, be lifted. The most recent escalation in the ongoing weapons standoff came in early November.
At that time, Western powers threatened military strikes against Iraq. The threat was removed on November 14, when Baghdad agreed to cooperate fully with the weapons inspectors. But, US and British officials warned Baghdad that future airstrikes could come without warning should Iraqi leadership again refuse to cooperate with UNSCOM. To back up their threat, Western powers left in place the military might they had positioned in the Persian
Gulf, within striking distance of Iraq. It was that military weaponry that was used on Thursday to conduct the strikes against Iraq. A stray missile from the allied attack on Iraq crashed into a southwestern Iranian border city Khorramshahr causing no casualties but prompting a strong diplomatic protest from Tehran.

Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Gen. Henry Shelton said the sites hit during the first bombing wave included weapons of mass destruction and barracks belonging to the Iraqi Republican Guard. US and
British officials have said they will continue bombing Baghdad until they have achieved their goal which is not to destabilize the regime but to decrease his capacity to threaten his neighbours.

World community’s response was not unanimous. Many Russian politicians expressed their negative attitude to the bombing. Boris Yeltzin met with
Evgeni Primakov, Russian Prime-minister, Nikolai Bordyuzha, Security
Council secretary and Anatoly Kvashnin, General Staff commander where he claimed that Russia would demand conducting the UN Security Council summit to consider the situation in Iraq. Egor Stroyev, Federation Council chairman said that the US and British bombardment of Iraq is a strike not on Iraq but on public opinion and above all on UNO. Russian Foreign
Minister Igor Ivanov expressed his point of view saying that military action ceasing would allow to renew the political process of Iraqi settlement. Moreover, he said that the report was made at the time when
Iraqi leaders approved of their readiness to collaborate with UNSCOM.
Russian Ambassador Yuli Vorontsov will return to Moscow for
“consultations”.

The only country that fully backed American and British bombing of
Iraq was Japan. Keidzo Obutti, the Prime Minister of this country has already received acknowledgement from the US president. According to his opinion Iraq didn’t fully cooperate with UN officials. Japan that is connected with the USA by economic and military union as well as strategic partnership always supports everything US does.

Tony Blair, the British prime minister is expected to be backed by the majority of deputies to the House of Commons. He said the attack, named
Operation Desert Fox, was necessary because Hussein never intended to abide by his pledge to give unconditional access to UN inspectors trying to determine if Iraq has dismantled its biological, chemical and nuclear weapons programs. From morning some protesters-natives from Arab countries
– Syria, Pakistan and Iraq – held demonstrations in Trafalgar Square and near prime minister’s residence situated in Downing street, 10. British people also fully agree with their government decision. Russian position is discussed by mass media. Moscow is said to have too little assets to seriously affect the situation. Today “Times” wrote: “Washington made it clear that the arguments of the country whose economic situation fully depends on financial assistance of Western countries won’t stop him.

Paris is reserved in its comments connected with the Iraqi bombing.
France always adhered to diplomatic crisis regulation.

NATO Ministers of Defense have gathered in Brussels to discuss their position regarding the situation in the Persian Gulf. Nobody have expressed their wish to participate in military actions.

The UN Security Council held a special debate Wednesday evening on the military action. Diplomats said the meeting of the 15-nation council would enable members to voice their views on the crisis, but no council action was expected in the form of a resolution or other decision. UN Secretary
General Kofi Annan expressed regret the standoff had not been resolved diplomatically. Richard Butler, UNSCOM chairman, ordered UNSCOM staff out of Baghdad. The entire staff was evacuated before dawn on Wednesday.

Iraqi officials said at least 25 people had died and 75 were wounded in the Iraqi capital alone during two days of airstrikes.

CONCLUSION

The UNO, established to replace the existing League of Nations, faces very difficult situation in connection with Iraqi bombardment. The beginning of effective Iraqi resistance came with a rapidity which surprised us all, and we were perhaps psychologically unprepared for the sudden transition from peacemaking to fighting. Some say that Clinton wanted to delay the floor debate and vote on whether he should be impeached over his actions stemming from an affair with former White House intern Monica Lewinski. Some questioned America’s moral right to bomb Iraq, while others demanded that this time the US do the job properly and get rid of Saddam Hussein.

But by doing so the USA and Britain have violated the UN Charter according to which: «All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations.» [ ]

Many political leaders doubt the necessity to preserve the UNO as there were drastic actions made by it. I think that the main reason for it is that the USA is the main financial source of the UNO and the latter in its turn is not willing to lose it.

In some way, my work can be continued as the events that happen in the world change the situation greatly. The future will show whether the UNO will be preserved or whether it’ll lose its unique character.

REFERENCES
1. Basic Facts about the UN. Sales No E.95.1.31;
2. Bush G., Scowcroft B. Why We didn’t Remove Saddam. Times, June 21, 1998;
3. Contreras Joseph, Watson Russel. Saddam Old Tricks. News Week, June 15,

1998;
4. Documents of the United Nations Department of Public Information;
5. Dr. Jan Azud Csc. The Peaceful Settlement of Disputes and the UN.

Bratislava: Publishing House of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, 1970;
6. Inside UNSCOM: The Inspector. Transcript of interview with Charles

Duelfer, Deputy Chairman of the UN Special Commission to Iraq.;
7. Iraq Bars UN Inspection Teams From Searching For Weapons. Copyright

1998. The Associated Press.;
8. Malt Bill G. Parade of the Dead Babies. Times. August 7, 1998;
9. Nelan Bruce W. Selling the War Badly. Times, March 2, 1998;
10. Osmanczyk Edmund Jan. The Encyclopedia of the United Nations and

International Relations. 2nd ed. New York: Taylor and Francis, 1990;
11. Peiser A., Serber M. U.S. History and Government. New York: Asmo School

Publications, Inc., 1992;
12. Ritter Leaves Baghdad After Weapons Inspections. CNN News Release.

March 10, 1998;
13. Saddam Hussein Freezes co-operation with UN inspectors. CNN News

Release. August 5, 1998;
14. Scott Ritter Testifies In Senate. CNN News Release. September 4, 1998;
15. The UN Charter;
16. The World Book Encyclopedia. Chicago: Field Enterprises, Inc.
17. U.S. Reacts Sternly to Iraq’s Rebuff of Inspectors. CNN News Release,

December 9, 1998;
18. U.S., Britain Bombard Iraq. CNN News Release, December 16, 1998;
19. United Nations Iraq-Kuwait observation mission;
20. Wedeman Ben “Iraqis protest, but against what?”;
21. Western Forces Pound Baghdad in Second, “Stronger” Assault. CNN News

Release, December 17, 1998;

Appendix A

CHARTER OF THE UN

PREAMBLE

WE THE PEOPLES OF THE UNITED NATIONS DETERMINED to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,

AND FOR THESE ENDS to practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbours, and to unite our strength to maintain international peace and security, and to ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods, that armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest, and to employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all peoples,

HAVE RESOLVED TO COMBINE OUR EFFORTS TO ACCOMPLISH THESE AIMS

Accordingly, our respective Governments, through representatives assembled in the city of San Francisco, who have exhibited their full powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the present Charter of the United Nations and do hereby establish an international organization to be known as the United Nations.
Appendix B

The specialized agencies
The International Labour Organization (ILO) formulates policies and programs to improve working conditions and employment opportunities, and defines international labour standards as guidelines for Governments;
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO) works to raise levels of nutrition and standards of living, to improve agricultural productivity and food security, and to better the conditions of rural populations;
The UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) promotes education for all cultural development, protection of the world’s natural and cultural heritage, press freedom and communication;
The World Health Organization (WHO) coordinates programs aimed at solving health problems and the attainment by all people of the highest possible level of health: it works in areas such as immunization, health education and the provision of essential drugs;
The World Bank group provides loans and technical assistance to developing countries to reduce poverty and advance sustainable economic growth;
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) facilitates international monetary cooperation and financial stability, and provides a permanent forum for consultation, advice and assistance on financial issues;
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) sets international standards necessary for the safety, security, efficiency and regularity of air transport, and serves as the medium for cooperation in all areas of civil aviation;
The Universal Postal Union (UPU) establishes international regulations for the organization and improvement of postal services, provides technical assistance and promotes cooperation in postal matters;
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) fosters international cooperation for the improvement and use of telecommunications of all kinds, coordinates usage of radio and TV frequencies, promotes safety measures and conducts research;
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) promotes scientific research on the atmosphere and on climate change, and facilitates the global exchange of meteorological data and information;
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) works to improve international shipping procedures, encourages the highest standards in marine safety, and seeks to prevent marine pollution from ships;
The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) promotes international protection of intellectual property and fosters cooperation on copyrights, trademarks, industrial designs and patents;
The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) mobilizes financial resources for better food production and nutrition among the poor in developing countries;
The UN Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) promotes the industrial advancement of developing countries through technical assistance, advisory services and training;
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), an autonomous intergovernmental organization under the aegis of the UN, works for the safe and peaceful uses of atomic energy;
The UN and the World Trade Organization (WTO), the major entity overseeing international trade, cooperate in assisting developing countries’ exports through the Geneva-based International Trade Centre.
Appendix C

«I want an understanding that will help my mission and make it successful»

Kofi Annan

United Nations Secretary General

Kofi Atta Annan, current Secretary General of the United Nations, is a native of Ghana — at the time of his birth, still a British colony called the Gold Coast. He was born April 8, 1938, in Kumasi, the descendant of a prominent family of paramount chieftains of the Fante people.. Annan began his education at a Ghanaian university, then completed a degree in economics at Macalester College in St. Paul, Minn. He pursued graduate studies in Geneva at the Institut Universitaire de Hautes Etudes
Internationales. Again in the United States, Annan earned an M.S. in management at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

By 1971, Annan had joined the United Nations.

His experience includes positions as Assistant Secretary General for
Program Planning, Budget and Finance, head of human resources and security coordinator, director of the budget, chief of personnel for the High
Commission for Refugees and administrative officer for the Economic
Commission for Africa.

He was named Under Secretary General for Peacekeeping Operations on
March 1, 1993. In the peacekeeping post he did, however, take on a number of delicate and complex jobs. He was sent to Iraq to negotiate the release of hostages and the safe transport of a half-million Asian workers who had become stranded in that area. As representative of the UN Secretary General in Bosnia., he negotiated his way among the four powers who had intervened in Bosnia — the United States, Britain, France and Russia.

On the evening of December 13, 1996, Annan was named Secretary General of the United Nations — the first black African to hold the job.

In the future, Annan will grapple with the problem of gaining support for the United Nations from the organisation’s sceptics, especially the
U.S. Congress.
Appendix D

|Membership and | | |
|Presidency of the | | |
|Security Council in | | |
|1998 | | |
|Month |Presidency |Membership Term Ends |
|January |France |Permanent Member |
|February |Gabon |31 December 1999 |
|March |Gambia |31 December 1999 |
|April |Japan |31 December 1998 |
|May |Kenya |31 December 1998 |
|June |Portugal |31 December 1998 |
|July |Russian Federation |Permanent Member |
|August |Slovenia |31 December 1999 |
|September |Sweden |31 December 1998 |
|October |United Kingdom |Permanent Member |
|November |United States |Permanent Member |
|December |Bahrain |31 December 1999 |
| |Brazil |31 December 1999 |
| |China |Permanent Member |
| |Costa Rica |31 December 1998 |

Appendix E

The United Nations was established in the aftermath of a devastating war to help stabilize international relations and give peace a more secure foundation.

The Nobel Peace Prize has been awarded five times to the United
Nations and its organizations.
Appendix F

Country Profile

Iraq
| |General |
| |Size: |437,072 sq. km |
| |Location: |Middle East |
| |Population: |21.4 million |
| |Government: |Republic |
| |Leader: |President Saddam |
| | |Hussein |

| |People |
| |[pic]Languages |Arabic, Kurdish |
| | |(official in Kurdish|
| | |regions), Assyrian, |
| | |Armenian |
| |Major Religions |Muslim 97% (Shi’a |
| | |60%-65%, Sunni |
| | |32%-37%), Christian |
| | |or other 3% |
| |Ethnic groups |Arab 75%-80%, |
| | |Kurdish 15%-20%, |
| | |Turkoman, Assyrian |
| | |or other 5% |
| |Growth rate |3.69% |
| |Birth rate |43.07 births/1,000 |
| |Death rate |6.57 deaths/1,000 |
| |Fertility rate |6.41 children/woman |
| |Male life expectancy|65 |
| |Female life |68 |
| |expectancy | |
| |Infant mortality |60 deaths/1,000 live|
| |rate |births |
| | | |
| |Economy |
| |[pic]Labor force |4.4 million |
| |Unemployment rate |N/A |
| |Inflation Rate |N/A |
| |Gross domestic |$41.1 billion (1995 |
| |product (total value|est.) |
| |of goods and | |
| |services produced | |
| |annually) | |
| |Budget |N/A |
| |Debt |$50.0 billion (1989)|
| |Exports |N/A |
| |Imports |N/A |
| |Defense spending |N/A |
| |Highways |45,554 km (1989) |

Appendix G

Saddam Hussein

President of Iraq

————————
[1] Blitzkrieg (Ger.) – lightning war, traced back to WW II

Solidarity rights:universality and diversities

Zoltan Vig

The oposition between the individual and the community is one of the central themes in the non-Western cultural criticue of international human rights.[1] Throughout the centuries concepts of human rights and fundamental freedoms provided that the beneficiaries of those rights and freedoms are individual human beings in whom these rights inhere inalienably by virtue of their humanity, and the dignity and integrity to which that characteristic entitles them.[2] For long, one of the key features of human rights thinking was the centrality of the dignity and well being of individuals. On the other hand, man is a „social animal“, and individual human rights have collective interests as legitimate restriction grounds. Moreover, such interests may impose duties on individuals. Some scholars argue that most human rights have a collective aspect.[3] Some human rights are intended on the protection of an individual’s capacity for relating with others (the freedom of expression, the freedom of assembly, etc.). In relation with the state’s obligation to implement human rights, most of the rights are collective as they can be implemented by means of general measures only. Some of the human rights are ascribed to special groups of human beings – such as children, women, prisoners, etc. — but still they belong to individual members of a group, rather than to the group itself as a hypothetical entity.

However, the solidarity rights are difficult to reconcile with the classical theory, as they are held not by individuals, but by collective subjects (“peoples”). They are frequently referred to as “third generation” rights. Karel Vasak, former director of the Division of Human Rights and Peace of UNESCO, began to use these terms at the end of 1970s. According to his explanation, after the first generation of negative civil and political rights, and the second generation of positive economic, social and cultural rights a new third generation of rights receives international recognition. These rights are the so-called rights of solidarity as they can be brought through only by joint activity of all social actors – individuals, state, public and private bodies, and the international community. Using the terminology of the French Revolution of 1789, the first generation of rights implies freedom, the second generation equality, and the third generation (the solidarity rights) – fraternity.[4] This model can be considered a simplified expression of a very complicated historical advance. It does not indicate a linear progression in which every generation of rights appears changing the old one, and disappears with the emergence of the next generation of rights. It also does not suggest that one generation of rights is more important than another is. The three generations are implied to be “cumulative, overlapping… interdependent and interpenetrating.”[5] This triad of democracy, development, and human rights reflects the fundamental conditionality of social and individual life and progress.[6] The “third generation” rights proposed by Vasek include the right to development, the right to peace, the right to a healthy and balanced environment, the property right of the common heritage of mankind, and the right to humanitarian assistance.

Nowadays the range and classification of collective rights is questionable. Some commentators distinguish particular rights as such — for example, the rights to self-determination, liberation and equality, the right to international peace and security, the right to use of wealth and resources, the right to development, the right to environment and the minority rights.[7] Others use classifications of collective rights, distinguishing for example: — “nationalist” collective rights, which imply the group of rights, which in some respect deal with the existence and cultural or political continuation of groups (e.g. the right to self-determination),[8] and other collective human rights;[9]

— or collective human rights reflecting demand for a global redistribution of power, wealth, and other important values or capabilities (the right to political, economic, social, and cultural self- determination, the right to economic and social development, the right to participate in and benefit from «the common heritage of mankind»), and the rights suggesting the impotence or inefficiency of the nation-state in certain critical respects (the right to peace, the right to a healthy and sustainable environment, and the right to humanitarian disaster relief).[10] In the following I will discuss those rights which are recognized by the majority of commentators.

The principle of “equal rights and self-determination of peoples” is cited in the United Nation’s Charter (UNCH) 1 (2) as a basis for friendly relations among nations. This principle is also declared to be one of the four purposes of the UN.[11] Throughout its existence, the UN has undertaken and supported many measures to promote and protect the right to self-determination, especially in encouraging and accelerating the grant of independence to colonial countries, trust territories and other non-self-governing territories, 75 of which became independent between the entry into force of the UNCH in 1945 and the end of 1977. As one of those measures this right is incorporated into the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). Both of these documents (article 1(1)) identically provide this right:

“All peoples have the right of self-determination. By virtue of that right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development.”[12]

In the probably most progressive document concerning collective human rights — the 1981 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR)[13] (article 20) – the right to self-determination is complemented with the “right to existence” and the further right to liberation “from the bonds of domination”, means for liberation being unrestricted, except for recognition of such “by the international community”. Moreover, the ACHPR declares a right to assistance from the other State Parties in any “liberation struggle against foreign domination”. The right of self-determination under the ICCPR and the ACHPR is absolute and immediate and non-derogable in any circumstances..

There is an opinion, that “self-determination has been the single most powerful legal concept shaping the world since the World War II”; being, however, at the same time very strongly affected by economic self-efficiency.[14]

The right of a group to existence is generally protected by the prohibition of genocide and apartheid. Article II of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide[15] defines genocide as “acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group as such”. The International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid relates the definition of the crime both to acts against individuals and to acts against groups. For example, article II (c) tells about “measures calculated to prevent a racial group or groups from participation in the political, social, economic and cultural life of the country”.[16]

The right not to undergo group-based discrimination, granted to individuals, is frequently cited as an example of a collective right. This viewpoint finds support in many international human rights instruments. The most important example is the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination.[17] In particular, the State Parties under this convention have an obligation “to engage in no act or practice of racial discrimination against persons, groups of persons or institutions” (article 2 (a)). Even so, that these provisions are formulated as state obligations, rather than as collective or individual human rights, “their result is a recognition of the rights of groups.”[18] .

The protection of minorities, reflecting the needs of minorities and groups as collectives,[19] is the oldest illustration of collective rights’ protection. Since the seventeenth century international treaties included provisions guaranteeing certain rights to religious minorities. Examples are the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), granting religious rights to the Protestants in Germany; the Treaty of Olivia (1660), in favour of Roman Catholics in Livonia, ceded by Poland to Sweden; the Treaty of Ryswick (1697), protecting Catholics in territories ceded by France to Holland, and the 1763 Treaty of Paris between France, Spain and Great Britain, protecting Catholics in Canadian territories ceded by France.[20] After the First World War the system of minority rights protection was established by the League of Nations. By means of special provisions in peace treaties this system provided for securing of legal equality for individuals belonging to minorities, as well as preservation of the group identity and traditions of minorities.[21] After the Second World War to the protection of minorities was applied rather an individual human rights approach. In the first place minority rights are secured trough the prohibition of group-based discrimination. In the second place, the ICCPR includes a special provision on the rights of individuals belonging to minorities serving as a starting point for further international and domestic legislation:

“In those States in which ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities exist, persons belonging to such minorities shall not be denied the right, in community with the other members of their group, to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practice their own religion, or to use their own language.” (article 27).[22]

Modern human rights development makes clear the movement in favour of collective rights for minorities. However, in most international and domestic human rights instruments these rights are declared alongside with rights of individual members of minority groups without any distinction. Examples are the Council of Europe’s 1995 Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities[23] ; the 1993 Vienna Declaration;[24] the 1978 UNESCO Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice;[25] the 1992 Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious or Linguistic Minorities.[26]

As a particular minority rights category can be considered the rights of indigenous peoples,[27] as historically the indigenous population was the target of discrimination.[28] Compared with minority rights, rights of indigenous people are more often to encounter in domestic legislation and more readily recognized as group rights[29] than minority rights. For example, the 1994 United Nations Draft Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People declares to be “collective rights” many of the rights included in the Declaration.[30] An exception in this tendency is the Vienna Declaration referring to “the rights of indigenous people”, not peoples.[31]

A group of so called collective cultural rights implies an individual’s right in community with others to take part in cultural life. This right is recognized in the 1966 UNESCO Declaration of the Principles of International Cultural Co-operation[32] and separately protected in ICESC[33] 15 (1)(a). The right to profess and practice a religion in community with others is declared in ICCPR[34] 18 (1). Surprisingly, the right to use a language is provided by neither of them.[35] The right to the common heritage of mankind is included in the UNESCO Draft Declaration on the Safeguarding of Future Generations of 1997.[36] This right is supposed to be more comprehensive than other cultural rights. It provides every individual, in community with others, with the right to share “Earth and space resources, scientific, technical, and other information and progress, and cultural traditions, sites, and monuments.”

The collective right to peace and security or “the right to life in peace” is declared as a right of “every nation and every human being” in the Declaration on the Preparation of Societies for Life in Peace, adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1978[37] . The Declaration on the Right of Peoples to Peace, adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1984[38] (§ 1) “solemnly proclaims that the peoples of our planet have a sacred right to peace.”

The right to use of wealth and resources or the right to sovereignty over natural resources might be described as an economic counterpart of the right to self-determination. There is an opinion that the permanent sovereignty of peoples and nations over their natural resources is a component of the “principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples” declared in the UN charter (article 1).[39]

This right is formulated in article 1 (2) of the ICCPR and the ICESCR as follows:

“All peoples may, for their own ends, freely dispose of their natural wealth and resources without prejudice to any obligations arising out of international economic co-operation, based upon the principle of mutual benefit, and international law. In no case may a people be deprived of its own means of subsistence”.

Moreover, the article 47 of the ICCPR and the article 25 of the ICESCR state:

“Nothing in the present Covenant shall be interpreted as impairing the inherent right of all peoples to enjoy and utilize fully and freely their natural wealth and resources”.

In the most completed form this right is declared by the article 21 of ACHPR.[40] All the above mentioned documents limit the right to sovereignty over natural resources by “obligations arising out of international economic cooperation” and by international law.

One of the most significant collective rights — the right to development, according to some commentators, is “difficult to define as a human right”, because it rather “tends to suggest the presence of certain conditions conducive for human rights ”.[41] The origin of this right is tracked back by some authors to the 1944 Declaration of Philadelphia,[42] adopted by the General Conference of the International Labor Organization, which stated, that “all human beings, irrespective of race, creed or sex, have the right to pursue both their material well-being and their spiritual freedom in conditions of freedom and dignity, of economic security and equal opportunity”.

The right to development as a human right was launched by Keba M’Baye, that time Chief Justice of Senegal, in his inaugural lecture on that subject to the 1972 study session of the International Institute of Human Rights in Strasbourg. In 1986 the General Assembly adopted the United Nations key document in this field — the Declaration on the Right to Development setting up the right to development as “an unalienable human right”.[43] The Vienna Declaration and the Programme of Action (articles I/10-11 and II/72-74) states this right as “a universal and inalienable right and an integral part of fundamental human rights”.[44] However, the most commentators agree, that this right doesn’t really have any enforceable means of implementation except for in the regional ACHPR system.[45] The right has been discussed broadly in recent years.[46] Partly, because the economic circumstances in many countries are such, that their inhabitants’ rights are violated steadily, and partly also because some programs for the economic development of these countries may themselves result in deprivation of human rights.[47] There is no generally agreed definition of the nature or scope of the right to development in the context of human rights. Many authors agree with the collective nature of this right[48] , however, the right to development might be considered as being both of collective and individual nature.[49] The UN Declaration on the Right to Development defines the right to development as right to participate in, contribute to, and enjoy economic, social, cultural and political development, in which all human rights and fundamental freedoms can be realized;[50] So, the right to development is supposed to have not only economical and social dimensions, but cultural and political as well.[51]

As individual human right, the right to development, represents a kind of combination of all individual human rights or the basis of all other rights. The individual right to development is a right to human flourishing in all spheres of life[52] in other words the individual right of every person to benefit from a developmental policy.”[53] An important element of the right to development as an individual human right is politic and economic “active participation”.[54] Article 3 (3) of the Declaration on the Right to Development states, that national development policies must be based on “active, free and meaningful participation in development and in the fair distribution of the benefits resulting therefrom.” The article 8 (2) requires, that “States should encourage popular participation in all spheres as an important factor in development and in the full realization of all human rights.” Pursuing these aims states are obliged to ensure “equality of opportunity for all in their access to basic resources, education, health services, food, housing, employment and the fair distribution of income”.[55] It should be noted that the participatory element is essential in other collective rights as well.

As a collective right the right to development implies full realization of the right of peoples to self-determination, which includes, subject to the relevant provisions of both International Covenants on Human Rights, the exercise of their inalienable right to full sovereignty over all their natural wealth and resources. (Article 1 (2) of the United Nations Declaration on the Right to Development)). The double role of the state in relation to collective rights can be illustrated the best on the example of this right. Acting as responsible for the promotion and protection of the right to development on national level states have the duty to formulate appropriate national development policies that aim at the constant improvement of the well-being of the entire population and of all individuals (article 2 (3) of the United Nations Declaration on the Right to Development)). Acting as representatives of nations on the international level states are obliged “to take steps, individually and collectively, to formulate international development policies with a view to facilitating the full realization of the right to development” (article 4 (1)).

A collective human right with regard to the environment is not generally accepted. It is included in the Rio Declaration concluding the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development[56] by reference to the right to development. The Vienna Declaration adopted the same position. § I/11 of the Declaration states “The right to development should be fulfilled so as to meet equitably the developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations.”[57] In many documents this right was mentioned not as a collective right but among the rights of individuals.[58] The collective environmental right is provided by the 1981 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights in the following formulation: “All peoples shall have the right to a general satisfactory environment favorable to their development”(article 24).[59]

The right to humanitarian assistance is described in the guiding principles for the strengthening of the coordination of humanitarian emergency assistance of the United Nations as having cardinal importance for the victims of natural disasters and other emergencies[60] . However, there is no mechanism to enforce this right at the international level (except for the ACHPR).

We could see that there are many collective rights declared in international and regional human rights instruments, and recognized by the international community. However, some commentators suggest that the status of collective rights as international human rights standards still remains ambiguous.[61] On the reason that a “people” cannot consist of anything more than the individuals who make it up, collective human rights are viewed as a non-existing concept and considered as rights of all individual human beings.[62] Many authors consider these rights to be too vague to be justifiable, and nothing more then slogans promoting goals of the United Nations, and sometimes even used for propaganda purposes in some countries.[63] Besides, the skeptical attitude towards collective rights is largely based on supposed impossibility of enforcement of collective rights.[64] The current trend in the international human rights law and theory shows weakness of these views[65] Moreover, many authors and legislators agree that the traditional system of individual human rights combined with non-discrimination provisions is not sufficient for the protection of the rights of individuals as group members. [66]

Nonetheless, there is widespread opinion that indiscriminate recognition of numerous demands or values as human rights would weaken the idea of human rights in general. [67] However, the inclusion of collective rights (the right to political determination and the right to sovereignty over natural resources) in the two fundamental universal human rights instruments over thirty years ago has not ruin individual human rights and it is doubtful to do so.[68] In the same way many authors are afraid of possible underestimation of individual rights in favor of collective rights. This idea is supported by the fact that the worst violations of individuals’ human rights occurred in the name of some “inspiring abstraction”, such as “the one true faith”, “the nation”, “the State”, etc. The term “people” is an abstraction as well. As a result, grave abuses of individual human rights might occur under “legitimating” label of collective interest, if any of the individual rights and freedoms protected by modern international human rights law ever will be regarded as in some sense inferior to peoples’ rights. [69] On the other hand, there is a view that “peoples… are above all people”[70] and that consequently such order has its advantages as well. According to the latter approach the main function of collective rights is still their benefit to the individual. Groups have no ultimate or necessary value, but they are a way in which individuals achieve various ends, which are necessary or desirable (in particular the good of community and the fulfillment of certain human capacities and attributes which are best fulfilled in community.)[71] There is an opinion, that recognition of collective rights as human rights is meaningful as far as specific collective goods are essential for human self-realization. Such a conception of collective rights is called the “collective” conception, as opposed to the “corporate” one. The latter conception implies that rights are held by a single corporate entity and used for pursuing a common aim, unconnectedly to any individual composing it; whereas in the “collective” conception the rights are united, but the interests of the group members are different.[72]

At all events, collective human rights are considered as an important component of the protection of individual human rights, as, for example, wars and local armed conflicts are clearly the most significant causes of violations of individual human rights. The collective character of the first rights is justified from the insider perspective of the suffering individuals, who frequently experience their suffering as group suffering.[73] Furthermore, since 1945 the object for many serious human rights violations were ethic groups as such. Therefore as the injustice is uphold by hostile attitude towards groups, the solution requires the promotion of the dignity of groups.[74] A clearer definition of collective rights would probably help reconcile conflicting views. The meaning of “peoples” notion is uncertain itself. There are many groups within a State – is every one of them entitled to be called “peoples” and claime, as a result, for its rights to be recognized? Is any given individual a member of a certain group sharing the group’s rights? Perhaps the most advanced definition would be the following one: “[Peoples are] collective entities based upon unifying, spontaneous [as opposed to artificial or planned] and permanent factors, as rule beyond the will of the members of the group.”[75] In addition, the territorial basis of such unifying has to be taken into consideration in almost all situations.

The next suggestion of the collective rights’ critic is the uncertainty of the opposing party in emerging obligation. It is not difficult to identify the entities that have the duty to respect and secure the rights of individuals (the State, its government, or other public authorities). This obligation is imposed on those who have it in their power to perform them. Hence, it is not clear who is in power to ensure for people the right to dispose of its natural wealth and resources for example. In Karel Vasek’s view the solidarity rights are rights with undetermined subjects and opposing to all centers of power.[76] That power can be spread very thinly over other States, public and private ,national and international bodies, and many individuals. The right to peace, the right to a healthy environment and similar rights can be considered as rights even not of a group of people, but of the whole human race entailing obligations of all the above-mentioned subjects and the human race itself. It is almost impossible to demonstrate that any one, or more of them has breached the obligation, since collective rights might be viewed as being “higher” than the level of states’ responsibility, which argument supports the opinion about legal non-enforceability of collective rights.

The possible solution could be to regard a state as responsible before it’s population for performing in it’s competence the duties imposed by collective rights’ obligations, and as a representative of it’s population in protecting these rights on the international level,[77] bearing in mind that these are primarily governments, who have to take the prime responsibility for promoting and protecting human rights.[78]

Some commentators consider collective rights as a product of both the rise and the decline of the nation-state in the last half of the 20th century.[79] In this case collective rights are understood as reflecting the emergence of Third World nationalism and its «revolution of rising expectations» (i.e., its demand for a global redistribution of power, wealth, and other important values or capabilities) and suggesting the impotence or inefficiency of the nation-state in certain critical respects. [80]

Considering the role of states with regard to collective rights some writers “distrust” collective rights since states might interpret these rights as state’s rights widening the area for individual rights abuses. However, states violate the rights of collectives in the same way as they violate the rights of individuals. They also promote the rights of collectives as they promote the rights of individuals. Therefore, collective rights have to be opposable to the states in the same manner as individual rights. Considering the nature of collective rights, some of them have to, and are able to be opposed against foreign states and against the international community as well. The latter characteristic demonstrates an unarguable advantage of collective rights before individual rights. [81] .

The status of collective rights differs not only in scientist’s views, but also in accordance with a kind of geographical criterion. Collective rights are traditionally given more attention in the non-Western societies, where the communal dimension is more important to individual well being than in the Western societies. The interests of the group are automatically among person’s interests.[82] On this reason international human rights frequently undergo critic in the non-Western countries, since the conflict between the individual and the community is the base of the human rights law originated in the Western countries. The promotion of collective human rights expresses the efforts of non-Western governments to assert their values on international level. As an example of this tendency may serve the 1976 Universal Declaration of the Rights of Peoples adopted in Algiers. Upon the non-Western way of thinking are based the so-called collective “Third Worldist” and “globalist” approaches[83] to collective human rights similarly perceiving these rights as a proper response to the globalization and the unconditional control of the Western countries over the international politics.

In this way some commentators challenge the universality of collective rights on the ground, that some groups of peoples do not need them at all. It can be true with regard to minority and indigenous peoples’ rights, but this argument is void concerning other collective rights, which are attributed to all people. For example, peoples from rich countries enjoy a right to development on an equal base with people from poor ones, but the protection of the first’s right does not require any action. In the same way providing for special rights to children or women doesn’t violate their universality. Eva Brems argues that human rights can be stipulated on behalf of certain categories of individuals or groups as long as these same rights are not denied to others.[84]

It seems that the arguments against collective rights are often based on the fact that many people are less sympathetic to the rights of others as a group, especially, when that group is perceived as very different.[85] The international collective human rights’ concept is still in process of development, and that we may say about many of international human rights. However, such a view is particularly true with regard to this group of rights. The potential of collective rights is great and the view that “individual human rights … are a safer and probably more effective course to pursue human rights”[86] will probably change. Collective human rights are recognized and protected in many of international human rights documents. There is a large academic interest to the topic as well, especially in connection with the globalization issues. And, although there is a role for international human rights instruments they in themselves will not rid the world of human rights violations.[87]

Список литературы

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[1] Eva Brems, Human Rights: Universality and Diversity 67 (2001).

[2] Paul Sieghart, The international law of human rights 367 (1995); Jose Ayala-Lasso, The Universality of Human Rights, in Human Rights and Humanitarian Law. The Quest for Universality 93 (Daniel Warner ed., 1997).

[3] Eva Brems, Human Rights: Universality and Diversity 67 (2001).

[4] Eva Brems, Human Rights: Universality and Diversity 67 (2001).

[5] Burns H. Weston, Human Rights the Content of Human Rights: Three Generations of Rights (visited Aug. 14, 2002) .

[6] Jose Ayala-Lasso, The Universality of Human Rights, in Human Rights and Humanitarian Law. The Quest for Universality 91 (Daniel Warner ed., 1997).

[7] Paul Sieghart, The International Law of Human Rights 368 (1995).

[8] James Crawford, The Rights of Peoples: ‘Peoples’ or ‘Governments’?, in The Rights of Peoples 57 (James Crawford ed.,1988).

[9] Ian Brownlie, The Rights of Peoples in Modern International Law, in The Rights of Peoples 124 (James Crawford ed., 1988).

[10] Burns H. Weston, Human Rights the Content of Human Rights: Three Generations of Rights (visited Aug. 14, 2002) .

[11] Charter of the United Nations (visited July 20, 2002) .

[12] International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (visited July 20, 2002) ; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (visited July 20, 2002) .

[13] African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (visited July 21, 2002) .

[14] Paul Reeves, The  Human Rights of Indigenous People: Tiptoeing Towards Self-determination, in Universal Human Rights? 68-69 (Robert G. Patman ed., 2000).

[15] Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (visited July 20, 2002) .

[16] International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid (visited July 20, 2002) .

[17] International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (visited July 20, 2002) .

[18] Eva Brems, Human Rights: Universality and Diversity 479 (2001).

[19] Nathan Lerner, Group Rights and Discrimination in International Law 10 (1991).

[20] Nathan Lerner, Group Rights and Discrimination in International Law 11-14 (1991).

[21] For example, Articles 86 and 93 of the Treaty of Versailles of 1919 (visited July 20, 2002) ; the Polish-German Upper Silesia Treaty of 1922 not only guaranteed certain rights – including life, liberty, and the free exercise of religion – for all inhabitants, and equal treatment before the law and the same civil and political rights for all nationals, but also the same treatment and security in law and in fact to all linguistic, or ethnic minority groups of nationals; the right of minority groups to establish schools and religious institutions and to use their own language for publications, at public meetings, and before the courts. (visited July 24, 2002) .

[22] International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (visited July 20, 2002) .

[23] Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (visited July 24, 2002) .

[24] Vienna Declaration and Program of Action (visited July 24, 2002) .

[25] Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice (vidited July 21, 2002) .

[26] Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities (visited July 21, 2002) .

[27] Eva Brems, Human Rights: Universality and Diversity 480 (2001).

[28] Rebecca M. M. Wallace, International Human Rights Text and Materials 104 (2001).

[29] E.g.: ILO Convention Nr. 107, on the Protection and Integration of Indigenous and Other Tribal and Semi-Tribal Populations in Independent Countries (June 26, 1957), declaring the collective rights of indigenous people, such as the right to decide their own priorities for the process of development and to participate in the formulation, implementation and evaluation in national and regional development plans affecting them (article 7 (1)), the right to retain their own customs and traditions (article 8 (2)), the rights of ownership and possession over the lands which they traditionally occupy (article 14 (1)), and the right to the natural resources pertaining to their lands (article 15 (1)). (visited July 24, 2002) .

[30] E.g., the collective right to live in freedom, peace and security as distinct people and to full guarantees against genocide or any other act of violence, including the removal of indigenous children from their families and communities under any pretext (article 6); the collective and individual right not to be subjected to ethnocide and cultural genocide (article 7); the collective and individual right to maintain and develop their distinct identities and characteristics (article 8); the right to determine their own citizenship in accordance with their custom and traditions (article 32) etc. (Draft Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People (visited July 24, 2002) .

[31] Vienna Declaration, § II, 28-29. (visited July 21, 2002) .

[32] Declaration of the Principles of International Cultural Co-operation (visited July 21, 2002) .

[33] International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (visited July 28, 2002) .

[34] International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (visited July 24, 2002) .

[35] However, the European Court of Human Rights has held that the right to education would be meaningless if it did not imply the right to be educated in their national language. Judgement of the European Court of Human Rights in Six Groups of Belgian Citizens v. Belgium (visited Aug. 5, 2002) .

[36] Draft Unesco Declaration on Cultural Diversity (visited Aug. 5, 2002) .

[37] Implementation of the Declaration on the Preparation of Societies for Life in Peace (visited Aug. 5, 2002) .

[38] Declaration on the Right of Peoples to Peace (visited Aug. 5, 2002) .

[39] Paul Sieghart, The International Law of Human Rights 368 (1995).

[40] African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (visited Aug. 5, 2002) .

[41] Rebecca M. M. Wallace, International Human Rights Text and Materials 1 (2001).

[42] Declaration of Philadelphia (visited Aug. 5, 2002) .

[43] Declaration on the Right to Development (visited Aug. 8, 2002) .

[44] Vienna Declaration (visited Aug. 7, 2002) .

[45] Gudmundur Alfredson, The right to Development: perspectives from human rights law, in Human Rights in Domestic Law and Development Assistance Policies of the Nordic Countries 84-85 (Lars Adam Rehof et al. ed., 1989).

[46] See, for example, the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (visited Aug. 18, 2002) ; Program of Action of 1994 Cairo Conference (visted Aug. 18, 2002) ; Declaration and the Programme of Action of the World Summit for Social Development (Copenhagen, 1995) (visited Aug. 14, 2002) ; the 1995 Platform of Action of the Beijing World Conference on Women (visited Aug. 14, 2002) .

[47] Paul Sieghart, The International Law of Human Rights, 401 (1995).

[48] Philip Kunig, Human Rights Approach to the Right to Development: Merits and Shortcomings, in The Right to Development in International Law 84 (Erik M. G. Denters et al. ed., 1992).

[49] Eva Brems, Human Rights: Universality and Diversity 71 (2001).

[50] Declaration on the Right to Development (visited Aug. 5, 2002) .

[51] An international conference, convened by the International Commission of Jurists in 1981, formulated the right to development as follows: “Development should… be seen as a global concept including, with equal emphasis, civil and political rights and economic, social and cultural rights… True development requires recognition that the different human rights are inseparable from each other, and development is inseparable from human rights and the Rule of Law. Likewise, justice and equity at the international level are inseparable from justice and equity at the national level… Development should be understood as a process designed progressively to create conditions in which every person can enjoy, exercise and utilize under the Rule of Law all his human rights, whether economic, social, cultural, civil or political. Every person has the right to participate an, and benefit from, development in the sense of a progressive improvement in the standards and quality of life. The concept of the right to development… serves to express the right of all people all over the world, and of every citizen, to enjoy all human rights. The primary obligation to promote development, in such a way as to satisfy this right, rests upon each State for its own territory and for the persons under its jurisdiction.” (Reported in Development, Human Rights and the Rule of Law; also UN General Assambly Resolution 32/130 of 16 December 1977).

[52] Eva Brems, Human Rights: Universality and Diversity 72 (2001).

[53] Burns H. Weston. Human Rights the content of human rights: Three generations of right (visited July 21, 2002)

[54] United Nations Declaration on the Right to Development, Article 2 (1) (visited Aug. 8, 2002) .

[55] It also says that: “Effective measures should be undertaken to ensure that women have an active role in the development process. Appropriate economic and social reforms should be carried out with a view to eradicating all social injustices ”.

[56] The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992) (visited Aug. 5, 2002) .

[57] Vienna Declaration (visited Aug. 5, 2002) .

[58] For example, Commision on Human Rights Resolution 1999/23, “Adverse effects of the illicit movement and dumping of toxic and dangerous products and wastes on the enjoyment of human rights”, § 4. (visited Aug. 5, 2002) .

[59] African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (visited Aug. 5, 2002) .

[60] See, for example, General Assembly RES/45/100 of 14 December 1990 (visited Aug. 5, 2002) .

[61] Burns H. Weston Human Rights the Content of Human Rights: Three Generations of Rights (visited July 24, 2002) .

[62] Jack Donnely, Human rights and collective rights, in Human Rights in a Pluralist World. Individuals and Collectives 43 (Jan Berting et al. ed., 1990).

[63] Richard B. Lillich & Hurst Hannum, International Human Rights Problems of Law, Policy and Practice 201 (1995).

[64] Richard B. Lillich & Hurst Hannum, International Human Rights Problems of Law, Policy and Practice 204 (1995).

[65] .  “Unqualified resistance to the idea of collective human rights is not very productive for the pragmatic reason that such rights already exist.” (Eva Brems, Human Rights: Universality and Diversity 73 (2001).)

[66] J. Donnely, Third Generation Rights, in Peoples and Minorities in International Law 91 (Catherine Brolmann et al. ed., 1993.)

[67] Richard B. Lillich & Hurst Hannum, International Human Rights Problems of Law, Policy and Practice 201 (1995).

[68] Eva Brems, Human Rights: Universality and Diversity 73 (2001).

[69] Paul Sieghart, The International Law of Human Rights 368 (1995).

[70] Eugene Kamenka, Human Rights, Peoples’Rights, in The Rights of Peoples 133 (James Crawford ed., 1988).

[71] James Crawford, The Rights of Peoples 167 (1992).

[72] Peter Jones, Human Rights, Group Rights, and Peoples’ Rights, Human Rights Quarterly 2. 86-88 (1999).

[73] William F. Felice, The Case for Collective Human Rights: the Reality of Group Suffering, Ethics and International Affairs 48 (1996).

[74] Michael Freeman, Are there Collective Human Rights? 32-33 (1995).

[75] J. Donnely, Third Generation Rights, in Peoples and Minorities in International Law 92 (Catherine Brolmann et al. ed., 1993).

[76] Eva Brems, Human Rights: Universality and Diversity 74 (2001).

[77] Eva Brems, Human Rights: Universality and Diversity 485 (2001).

[78] Jose Ayala-Lasso, The Universality of Human Rights, in Human Rights and Humanitarian Law. The Quest for Universality 94 (Daniel Warner ed., 1997).

[79] Burns H. Weston Human Rights the content of human rights: Three generations of rights  (visited July 24, 2002) .

[80] Burns H. Weston Human Rights the content of human rights: Three generations of rights (visited July 24, 2002) .

[81] Jack Donnely, Human rights, individual rights and collective rights, in Human Rights in a Pluralist World. Individuals and Collectives 72-73 (Jan Berting et al. ed., 1990).

[82] Eva Brems, Human Rights: Universality and Diversity 67 (2001).

[83] Eva Brems, Human Rights: Universality and Diversity 70 (2001).

[84] Eva Brems, Human Rights: Universality and Diversity 71 (2001).

[85] J. Donnely, Third Generation Rights, in Peoples and Minorities in International Law 149 (Catherine Brolmann et al. ed., 1993).

[86] J. Donnely, Third Generation Rights, in Peoples and Minorities in International Law 149 (Catherine Brolmann et al. ed., 1993).

[87] Rebecca Wallace, International Human Rights: Text and Materials 104 (2001).